

 䨭

  ஫:    ᫥  ⮡



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⠢⥫:  ⮭

  饭  ࠬ ஥ <Translation Project>  প  <⮥ ⢮> ( )-    <⮥ ⢮> - 㤠.

⥫⢮ <-> ࠦ ७ ਧ⥫쭮 ⥫ O'Reilly    㭤  ⫨   ᮤ⢨  㡮 ୮ ⥫ ࠫ᪮ 㭨  ࣠樮 ⨥   ⮩ .


᪨ ਬ砭  ஢ ᭮᪨,᭮᪨  ਬ砭 ॢ稪稭  <p> - ਬ. . FB2




  ᪮ ⥫


  뫮 让  㧭,  Database Nation ॢ  ᪨ ,  ᮡ  ࠤ ,  ,  ண ⥫,    ⮩ .

Database Nation 뢠,  ਢ⭮     ᫮ থ⢠ ⨨.   ⥫쭮 ஢७묨, 孮   ।⢮ 㭨⮦ ਢ⭮  ࠧ襭 ⨨.    ⭮, ண ⥫, ⠪    㣨 , 訬  ६ ᪮ ਨ.   童   ᠬ  ᪨   ,     㪮⥫  ᮡ 易 ᯥ祭 ⮣, ⮡ ਢ⭮   ࠭  㯨襬 ⮫⨨.

 ,   ন  㪠, 㡫  ᪮ 몥,   ⥭  㢨,   ਬ 뢠  .  ᮦ, ,   , 祭 㤭 㧭  ந室饬  ᨨ. 祢 ᪫祭, ,  ⭨ ⮣ ਤ ( ),  ன    5.  ⮩ ⮣䨨, ᤥ  1989  ᮢ᪨ ⭨-诨, ࠦ  .  ᤥ   让   म ᨫ  ⥭.  ⥫⢮ ⮣,  騥 ਢ⭮ 孮   ᪨ ࠭.

 ࠧ       ਢ⭮   ,   訫  Database Nation. ,   ࠢ.

 䨭

, 2003




1

஧ ਪ᭮ ⭮ 



 믠  ⥫䮭 .   ?! ᪮쪮 楢   ணࠬ஢ ᢮ ⥫䮭 ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡   ய᪠ 室騥   8 ,    ᥣ  6:45.     ⠪ ६?  ᠬ ,  ᬮ  ஢ ?

 ᭨ 㡪    ᠥ  ⭮ -  ࠧ㤨 設, ந뢠 ४ ᮮ饭.    ந ஬ ⥫䮭  饭       , , ᫥ ⮣  ⮨ 㭠த  㯠  10 業⮢  ,  ⮪    ਪ  ᥣ . 祬    - ४, ᫥⢨ 让 ୮ ணࠬ㥬 ⥫䮭 ⮢.   ᯮ   ஡:   襫 १ ⠭ 䨫? 稭  㧭 ᪮쪮 : ந⥫ 㯫  ⥫䮭  ।ᬮ५   樨 < 室>, ଠ  ஬   㬥樨.  ଠ  ᥪ ,   , த     樮.   ⨫     﫨 ᢮ 蠭 㯨 ᢮ ᯮ⢨  ਪ᭮.

-:
   㫨,  蠥 ࠧ  .   㦨 쬮  襩 쭨. < 祭 ࠤ,  ࠢ⮫᪮ ⤥ 襩 쭨 ᬮ   室   㦭 >,- 稭 쬮. <  ⭮, ,   ६  ᮮ⢥⢨  訬 HMO [Health Maintenance Organization],[p1]  뢠  室. ⮡   ࠧ  쭨 稭 த ଠ  ᢮ 樥 ଠ, 騬 樭᪨ ᫥ﬨ  祭 ॡ⥫᪮ .  ⮣ ⮡ ᫥ ⮩ 筮 ࠪ⨪,  訫     졮   ஢ ࠧ. 㥬 ࠧ ⢮ - 275 ஢ -  ⮨ 襣 饭  .    㬬 㤥 㬥襭 ࠧ 㯫稢  >.

 ᮧ,   쪨 蠭⠦   ᫮,   室 祣 ᮡ 譮  ⮬,  - 㧭  殮 燐  襬 .  ᣨ    ࠢ   設  㭨⮦ 㬠   ந  ।  । ⠬.

祬   設,     ২?  ᪮쪮         諮 㭨⮦ 㬠  ४묨 ।ﬨ,      㧥  ந襫  樤:  筮 <६ ࠫ>. 㦠騩      祭   襣 㣠 ।   । ,   㪠 ⠬ ᯫ⭮ ⥫䮭 ,   ⠢ । 窨.    娪,   祩 ண 饩  ஭, ਮ⥭   襣 㣠.

 ⮩ ࠤ⭮    ᢮ 䥫  ࠢ  ,  ⮬᪨ 뢠  襩 ᯨ.

  室  ,   ᪠  , ⮬⨪  筮  ࠢ    ࠦ. 稪    ,       ,  稫  諮      4G. ,   ᥤ ⠫   ᢮ 㩭 ࠢ 㦪,   뫮 饭 ਡ  . ⢥,   ணࠬ஢   ⮣ 祫, ,   襫  ,  뫨 ஢  ਥ 樨.  ,      室  㣨 .    ।,  㩭 ࠢ ⥫  ⢥  ஡,  ᥬ 祬  ࠤ  ஢ ६ 䮡.   墠⮬  ࠧ 祭 ,  稫 ᫨誮    4G.  ,  뫮 ᠭ  .

⮢  襣 ⮬ ᮢ⮢  ਠ    ࠡ ᥣ ஬.  ࠫ  祭 㤠  ஢  ⮬ ஡  .  ६ 㦤      ந뢠 ४ 㫮祪  稭,      몫:  ᯫ  㯠   ४.

   ࠡ  ⠫  祭  ௮⨢ ⥬  ࠡ祣 ६.  祭    ஭  ᮮ饭  । ᪮쪮 ਠ⮢ 樨 ६ :  室 ᥣ  , ঠ  45  ஬    ६   ⠪ 㦥 騢襣 ᪠. 롮  .

 뢠  ஭  뤠   롪. 쪠    襣  ࠭᫨ ࠦ 襩 롪   . ⠥,  Workplace Video WallpaperT ᯮᮡ ନ஢  ⮢⢠,  -ந⥫ ⮣ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 ⢥ত ⠪,  ﭭ ਭ ᮪頥 ⢮ 䫨⮢  ࠡ祬 , ।頥 䫨   㯮ॡ મ⨪.   ࠡ   론:   ⮣ ᭮.

    堭 뢭 ਭ  ࠡ.    ୠ ⠭ ஭ ⪨, ਧ ⠭ ﭭ 饭  ⥪ . ᫥ , 稢襩  १ ᮮ饭  ,  㦠騥 易 ﭭ  騥 ⠡窨,  ⮫  誠稪 ࣠ ਮ᪮ ᬮ. ( ,  砫쭨 㦡 ᭮ ᠬ ࣠   ᮮ饭  , ⮡      浪.)

 ᫥饬    ⠭  뢠  ᯥ樠 ன⢠,   ᫥, ⮡ 㦠騥 뫨 㪨.  ࢮ砫쭮  ன⢠ 뫨 ࠧࠡ⠭  ० ࠢ࠭  饢 ஬諥, ᫥ ᫥ ,  ॣ୮   ᭨ ࠭  ।  ࠡ⭨.   設  ⠭,   ⮣      ᢮ ਢ⭮  ⮨⢠.
 饥. 祬  ⤠,  ᠬ 襥. 饥,  ஬ 祧   訥 ࠭⨨ ਪ᭮ ⭮ ,    ᥩ.  뢠   <᪮>,     ஬ द [p2] <1984>, 饭  ਢ⭮  ⮭.  ⮩   뢠 饥,  ஬ ਪ᭮ ⭮  ⮯⠭ ⠫ 㤠⢮, ᯮ騬 ᫥, , ᪨ ॢ  ஫ । ᮢ ଠ樨  ঠ ᢮ .  ६ ⠫쭮 ஫  ஭ 㤠⢠ 諨.  饬,  ஬  , ᭮ 㤥 室   ᥧ饣 <讣 >, ᫥饣  뢠饣   蠣,   ⥭ <쪨 쥢>, ﭭ 뢠  訢   . द  ⠫,   ஧ ᢮ 㠫쭮 室  ஭ 㭨᪮ ⥬.   ᫥ 50   㢨   ஧ ਢ⭮, ୨  室 ᮢᥬ   ⠫ਧ,  ஧ ᫨  碥 ᢮ ⠫᪮ 뭪, ᮢ६ 孮  ஫㥬  ஭ ଠ樥.




    ᫮ ਢ⭮?

ਢ⭮[p3]  業ࠫ쭮   ⮩ ,   ᫮    ࠦ ᯥ 㠫쭮 ᢮, ⢮ ன  ண  祫   ஧  ஭ । 孮.
⨫ﬨ  ।०,  ࠧ⨥ 孮 ஭       ਢ  ᬥ ਢ⭮  ⨨.  ⮣  設⢠  ᫮ <ਢ⭮> 뢠 ᮢᥬ 㣨 樠樨.   ᯫ뢠 ᪠  [p4]-࠭ 筮, 㦥 ஡   襫쭨᪨ ࠧ   .   砫   ७  諥  ⮢ 騪, ᠬ ந  室  ,  ,    ந ᠬ⥫쭮, 㯠 ᪫⥫쭮   죨,  ⮬ ﭭ 﫨  ⠪묨 䥤ࠫ ࠢ⥫⢮  ᬨ᪨ 襫栬. ᫨      ਣ,    襩 ஭ 㤥 : < 祬   ⠪   ᢮ ਢ⭮?  祣 뢠!>

஡ ஥  ᠬ ᫮ <ਢ⭮>, ஥  । ᥩ  । 㦤.   ਢ⭮,       ᮪⨥ - 䠪⮢.    ࠢ  ᠬ।, ᨬ  楫⭮.  ਧ  XXI ,  ண ண  ⮨, ࠢ  ਢ⭮      ࠦ᪨ ࠢ.  ਢ⭮ -    ࠢ      ᪨  , ⮬  , ,   묨   묨 .  ࠢ  ।,  ஡      ।  ,    稢 .

⮡  ஫ ਢ⭮  XXI ,    ࠧ ᫨,     , 㯮ॡ  ᫮ ᥣ.

    稭, 饬 ᯥ ᥡ    ᬮ ୮᪨ ࠦ १ ୥.   騭,    ᯮ짮 ୥  ࣠樨 㯯  ⨢ ᢠ ⮪ 室, ⠪  뢠騥    죨      諮, ᫨  ⠭ 宩  .

    ,    㢥    ॢ襭 ᪮  ࠫ, 䨪஢ ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ ஫ ᪮⭮ ०.   ,       ᫠ ண㫪  த᪨ 㫨栬  , ⠪  ,    蠣 䨪 ࠬ .

    ᯥ樠 ⥫, ॢ  襪  ᢮    ᫥ 䠪⮢ 樨  ᪨ 㯫.     ࠦ,  ⪠뢠   㤠⢥ 㦡, ⠪   , ⮡ ஢      祭᪨ ࠡ, 樭᪨     ஭ .

    ᬮ, ⠫⥪  ᫥, ⠢   襩   ய, 誮   䥤ࠫ ०.   ⢥, ஥, ᬠਢ  ࠦ  ⥭樠 ⮢,    ६   ࠪ᪨ 祣    ࠦ  ॠ ஧  ᭮.

,   ࠭,  ,  ਢ⭮  筠 ᢮  ࣠ ஧.   -   ⨢ ਢ⭮,   ࠢ⥫⢥묨 <誠>, ᠭ⠬   묨 ᥤﬨ.

   ᮧ  ஧. ᭮ १⠬ ஢ Luis Harris & Associates  1996  饭樮쭮 , ⢥ ਪ楢 (24%) <筮 ⮫㫠  থ    >,[1] ⨢ 19%  १⠬  1978 .  1995    ,  80% ᯮ⮢ ,  <ॡ⥫  﫨  ஫஢,   ᯮ ᮭ ଠ      ।>.[2] ஭ ,   ᫥ 뫨 祭  Equifax, 饩  室   म ஢   ᡮ  ࠭ ᮭ .

⠪,  ,  ਪ᭮ 襩 筮   ஧. ஡  ⮬,    ,  ⮩ ஧ ⨢.




 孮


  ⨢ ਢ⭮ ᭮ 易  孮᪨ ணᮬ ᫥ .   㢨   ⮩ , ஫㥬 ࠧ⨥ 孮    ਢ⭮.   䨪 ᮡ 筮 ,  ࠭  ,   ⥫㭨権      ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ᥬ . ᬮ     ᯥ樠 孮   ᯮ짮   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨, 饥 設⢮ ⨦   ᮢ६ 孮 ࠡ  ⨢ 楫.

ਢ⭮ ᭮ 易  㠫쭮.   ࠧ⥫쭮 ⢨ 孮  ਢ⭮,  ,  ⮣,   孮 ᯮ짮  ⠭ ஫  祫᪨ 宬,   楫   ।. ⢨⥫쭮, 孮 ᠬ  ᥡ    ਢ⭮  - : 孮 ᯮ ,  襭   १ ⠭ ࠢ 楤 ᯮ짮  ⨦.

 ᥣ   , ,  ⮣ ⮡ ᫠ ⨦ﬨ ᮢ६ ⢠,  易⥫쭮    ᯥ祭 ன ⥯ ਢ⭮. ᫨  ਭ 㤮⢮ 㯪 ⮢஢  ।⭮    ஥  ⭮ ண   ஭ 䨪  ઠ  ,   ᬨ  ,  ଠ   㯪    ﭭ ᥤ  쭮  , ஫஢ ᯮ짮 ன   . ,    , ᮣ襭 祭 宦  ᤥ .

 㬠,   ᤥ ⮫  㦭, ᪮  ।.    㣮 ਧ 襣 ⢠, 訩    50- - 60-  XX ,- ਧ 㦠饩 ।.   讣  㡥 ,  ࠢ ४   -    ᪮ ࠧ⨥,  ࠡ稥   襭 ⢠ . ࠢ 뫮 ⮬ ண: ,   ᮣ蠫  ⨬,   ᮧ 䠪.

  㬭.   ,  ࠧ⨥ ᯮᮡ    ࠭ 㦠饩 ।. ⢨⥫쭮, ࠭ 㦠饩 । - ५ ᫮  ࠭ 祫᪮ .  ⮣      ६. 筮,  祫⢮   ᮢ६ 孮,      ᯮ짮  孮   筮 ᢮.

⨥ 孮   襭  ਢ⭮  .  1890   ⮢  ⮭,  ७ [Samuel Warren]    [Louis Brandeis], ᠫ  Harvard Law Review  ⮬,  ਢ⭮ ࣠ ᭮ < ஭  ⥭  ⮤  >.  ᢮ 㡫樨  ⢥ত,  ﭨ ᮢ६ ⢠ ॡ ᮧ ᯥ樠쭮 <ࠢ ਢ⭮>, ஥ ਧ   ,    <ࠢ  ਢ⭮>.[3] ७   ⪠뢠 ,  ਢ⭮  ⬥  㣮 孮᪮ ண.   㡫 ⠥ ᠬ ⥫쭮 ਤ᪮ 쥩   ⥬ । - 㡫.[4]    稬    , ᪮ 孮᪨ ⨦,  뢠 ᯮ⢮ ७  , ⠭  .

筮, 㡨騥 ਢ⭮ 孮    㬥,  ᭮ 易  㪮, 뭪  ⢮.  ᮧ  孮  㤮⢮७ ᯥ᪨ ॡ⥩,    ॠ. 㫨஢ ᯮ짮  孮 ந室  ᨬ  ⮣, ᪮쪮 ⢮   㦤.

   ஢ ⠫  ᯥ樠쭮 ᮧ 孮, ᭮ ।祭 ன 뫮  ࠧ襭 ਢ⭮,    ᬥ  ॡ⥫ ⠫   ᯮ짮, ᫨   ᮧ ᫥⢨.  ᥣ  ,   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ᯮ짮  孮 뢠,  ᯮ,   ਤ  祭,   ᯥ 뢠,    ᬠ - 訡  ࠪ᪮ ॠ樨.  ࠪ⨪  ⮦ 訡  ॢ ⥬, ࠧࠡ뢠   ᮭ ,  ⥬,  ࠧ蠥  ᥪ.

 ࠧ    孨᪮ ண   ਢ⭮  ᫮ ᢮ 뭪?   ⥩ -  ஦묨  ନ஢묨 ॡ⥫ﬨ.   ,     ஫  ⮬    ࠢ⥫⢮.




 ࠢ⥫⢠


᫥ ᥣ ⮣,   蠫  讬 ,    㬠  ࠢ⥫⢥ , 祬   ࠣ ਢ⭮? ᬮ    䥤ࠫ   ⥫쭮 㤠⢥ ࣠  । ਢ⭮,  㢥७,   訥    ਢ⭮   祫⨨      䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮.

  訡 ਪ᪮ ࠢ⥫⢠    ਢ⭮ ⮨  ⮬,    ⠫ ࠧ  ﬨ ᮭ, ठ   ⥫   ⮩ .  ᬮਬ,  ࠧ   㦨  ᥣ.

  ⮣  뫨  ਢ⭮   ࠢ ॡ⥫ ४ ⨫⨥.  1970   ਭ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬> [Fair Credit Reporting Act].  ᮭ [Elliot Richardson], 訩   ६ ᮢ⭨ १ ᮭ  ᠬ ࠢ࠭, ࠧ  樠쭮 ᯥ祭, ᮧ  1972    祭 ﭨ  孮  ਢ⭮. ᫥ ᪮쪨  蠭    諠  뢮,    ॢ ,   1973  ⨫ 㦨騩  .




 ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨


 ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨    ਭ樯.

  ⢮ ⥬,  ᮭ ଠ, ᠬ 䠪 ⢮   ᥪ⮬.

 祫    ஫஢,  ଠ   ࠭  ⥬   ࠧ  ᯮ.

 祫      ᯮ짮 ଠ樨, ᮡ࠭     楫,  㣮 楫.

 祫    ४஢ ଠ  ᥡ.

 ࣠,  ᮧ, ᮯ஢, ᯮ짮  ࠭ ᨢ ଠ樨, ᮤঠ ᮭ ,  ᯥ ᯮ짮   ⮫쪮   楫,    ᮡ࠭,  ਭ  ⨢  ᯮ짮   祭.

筨: ⠬ ࠢ࠭, ࠧ  樠쭮 ᯥ祭, 1973

  ᫥⢨  ᮭ ⠫   ࠢ   , 稢訩   ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨 [Code of Fair Information Practices].   ⠥   ᠬ 稬 㤮   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ᯮ짮 ஢  ᥣ譨 .

 襥 祭       ⮢,   ய.  祭 ᪮쪨  ᫥ 㡫樨  ࠪ᪨  ࠭ ய ਭ﫨 ᮮ⢥騥 , 騥    ਭ樯.   ࠭  ਢ  ⢨   뫨 ᮧ ᯥ樠 ᨨ     㣨 ०  ᯥ樠묨 ﬨ.[5]  ,  襭   ஭ ᯥ ਢ⭮  ய ᫮ 쪨 ⮬ ᪮ ଠ  40-  XX : ⫥஢᪠ ⠩  ᯮ짮 ଠ ࠢ⥫   ࣠権  㯨஢ ࠭   , ।⠢ ஧  㯠⮢. ᫥ ய ᮧ  ⥭樠 ᭮  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ᠬ묨 ᪨ ࠢ⥫⢠, 訢騬  ⢥ .

     ᮧ   ଠ樨  뫠 饭. १      ᠬ ᯥ祭 樭᪮ ⠩,  ᪨  ᪨ ஡   稬묨.  1980   நࠫ  롮  ,   ⠫  ਢ⭮   㤠筮 樠⨢ . ᬮ    ᪮쪮     筮 ⠩ 뫨 ਭ  ६ ࠢ   ,  楫 㣠 ,    . ᨢ ⥫ 樠⨢  ஭   㦨 稭 ⢨ 饭樮쭮    ଠ樨.

᪨   䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢠ ஢  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮,   ᫮  ਤন - <⨯ਢ⭮> .  砫 80-  䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ 樨஢  <மࠧ> ணࠬ   㯮ॡ  襭. ( ᮦ, - 訡筮    ணࠬ  ࠤ .[6])  1994   ਭ <  ᮤ⢨ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  ⥫㭨> [Communication Assistance to Law Enforcement Act], 訩 ࠢ⥫  ᥫ   樨   ஢  裡.  1996   ਭ , 뢠騩     樠쭮 客  ⥫᪨ ࠢ,  㣮 , ᮣ᭮ ஬ ᥬ 樥⠬    ᢮ 㭨 ஢ 䨪,  ᫨  ᠬ 稢 ᢮ 樭᪨ .  , 㯫    ᨫ 뫮 ⫮    ⠬ ࠦ.

 ⨪ த 樨   ⮭, ᥬ ।⢠ ࠢ訥 ࠢ 짮⥫ ஢  ᯮ짮 ਢ   㭨権. 稭  1991   樨 ᨫ ⠫ 樠⨢  ਬ ਯ⮣᪮ ⥬ Clipper,   砥 ७   ࠢ⥫  ஫஢ 饭 㭨樨. १ ⮭ ⮢ ⠪ <  ⮩   㭨樨> [Communication Decency Act, CD], ᮣ᭮ ஬ ।⠢ ᮢ襭⭨ 㯠  ଠ樨 ᥪ㠫쭮 ࠪ 﫮 㯫, ,  ᫥⢨,   ୥-஢஢ ॡ ⠭ ᥯஭ ⥬ ਭ  業. ᫥ ⮣   䨨 ਧ  ଠ⨢  樮,  ⮭ ⨫  樥  客   நࠫ.

,  ࠢ⥫⢮  ࠭祭  ᯮ ஢ 孮 쥧 ࠭稫  ᯮ짮   筮 ९᪨  ।  ⮢.

 ண XXI       祭 쥧 㬠  ᯥ祭 筮 ⠩.  ᫥  ⮩  ਢ   室  ⮩ 樨  । 蠣,  ࠢ⥫⢮  ⢨  ஢ 䥤ࠫ쭮 ணࠬ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.




஭


஡ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ਪ ⮨ ⠪  ,   ࠭ 㦠饩 ।  1969 . ਤ   ४ 宣    뫠 墠祭 ,    뫮  .  ६ : ᥣ  ᭮  뫮  宣 ,   ᭮ ,  饥 ﭨ 㦠饩 ।  ਪ  , 祬 ᪮쪮 ⨫⨩ .

    ⮬,    ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ਢ  ଠ쭮 ﭨ.   ⨢ ਢ⭮     ,  ⥫   ୥.    ᮧ,   筠 ᢮  ࣠ 饬.  稭 ᠬ⥫쭮 ਭ ⥩訥  , த ⮢ 묨 죠  ⪠ ।⠢ ᢮  樠쭮 客 ( 뢠 諥).  ⮬ ,  ﭭ 㢥稢  ⢠     孮, ᯥ稢 ਢ⭮,  室  ᫮  , ᮧ ⥬  ࢨ,     ਢ⭮, , , ᯥ稢 .

᫥ ⨫ 稫  ⮬,  孮 -  ,   䠪 襭  ਢ⭮  १⮬ ᮧ⥫쭮 롮.  ⭮,  , ,  ।⠢⥫   : < 祭 , , ᬮ  ,   ⨢  襣  樠쭮 客  믨᪥  ﭨ 襣 ᪮ ,     >,-   ᠬ  砥: < ணࠬ 稫   樠쭮 客   믨᪨  訡,    ⠥  쥧   ᥭ   ணࠬ. -  㣮 ࠧ>.

  ८᫨  ப  﫨,  让   ࠢ⥫⢮ -⠪   ⢥. ᬮਬ  ਬ  ᫥ ⨫.

Lotus Development Corporation.  1990  Lotus  Equifax 訫   ୮ ᪥ ଠ樮 த   <뭮 Lotus: 宧⢠> [Lotus Marketplace: Households],  砫   ᥡ , ଠ樨. ᪮ 設⢮    ᬮ    ᥢ饣 .

楫 ᯮ짮 樭᪨ ᥩ. 樭᪨  ࠤ樮 ⠫  ࠪ  䨤樠쭮 ଠ樨. 易⥫⢮ ࠭ 祡 ⠩ ᥣ ᬠਢ    祢 ॡ  樭᪮ ࠡ⭨.  ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮 樥  ࠧ१  ᠬ ਨ 樭᪮ 客:  ⮬   ᪨ 룮 ⢥  쭮, 祬  .

᪮஫쭠 ४.  㪫  , ४  䠪, ४ ᮮ饭  ஭ , ४   ⥫䮭  ६  -  砫 ப⠡  ᪮஫쭮 ४ . થ⮫      ᯮ짮 ᮭ ଠ  稢 ४ ।,  㤥 㤭 ⤥  ப ⥩,  ᥬ  㣮 ᪮ ᯮ樨.

ᮭ쭠 ଠ  ⮢.  筮 ଠ: , , 审  㣨 , 騥 祫 㭨,-   ॢ⨫  業 ꥪ .   ⨬ ꥪ⮬   , ஫騥 ଠ  ᥡ,  㯭 , ﭭ ᯮ騩   祭 ਡ뫨  墠 뭪.    ᮡ⢥ 業,       ᮡ⢥ ?

᪠ ⮭.     ᫥  祭 筮 । ᫥⢥ , ᮡ ࠪ, ஢ ⥫  㣨 祫᪨ .   ਭ 祫 ।  ⭮, ᫨  ஢ন  ⥫⢠    । ᨫ  ᫠ ஭, ।ᯮ   ? ᫨ ,    稨 ᢮ 㯠  ⮩ ଠ樨  ந ᪮ ⢮?

ࠢ ⥫㠫쭮 ᮡ⢥. ௮樨 祭 ⥫쭮 ᫥  ࠢ୮ ᯮ짮 ᢮ ⥫㠫쭮 ᮡ⢥.   ⢮ १砩 ᫮ ,  孮   ॡ⥫  ࠭⥫ ⥫㠫쭮 ᮡ⢥. ⮡ ।  饭, ࠢ⥫  ᠬ ७ 孮 ᫥  ⠬.  ᪮ 孮 㦥 , ⭮,   ਬ 㤥 ࠭祭  ⮩  ⢠.

筮  ⥭樠 .  樢 ᯮ ஬ ⢮ ᬥ⮭ 孮.  ⢮   ᥡ  ஧ ᪨ ⮢, ஬  ﭭ   ?    ⨢ ⥬᪨ 㯮ॡ  ஭ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠,  ᫨  ந室   ᥣ ⢠?

⥫㠫 設. 쥧 ஧ ਢ⭮ ।⠢ , ਡ騥  ᢮   祫᪮ ࠧ.  ஬ ᫨⥫쭮 魮,   ﭨ ந 吝 ⨭ 㦠饣 , ஢  ஢ 祫᪮ ᮧ ⮫쪮 ࠢ,    祫  㦤 ⭮⥫쭮  த.

 祭  墠뢠  ஡,      饬.   稭 ᠭ   뫮  ,    ୮ ࠧ 孮    쥧 ﭨ  ਢ⭮  த஢ ⨬ 室  襭 ஡ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  筮 ਭ樯.   ,    孮᪮ 饥,  ⮢  .

 ⮩  ।४ ᬥ ਢ⭮  XXI ,  楫 ᠭ  - ⨣ ⨢ १.  40    祫 ᮭ [Rachel Carson] < ᭠> [Silent Spring]  ⮫箪 ࠧ    㦠饩 ।.   ᥬ  ।᪠ ᮭ  ᭠   ⠭. < ᭠> ⨣ ᢮ 楫, ⠪    ᮧ  ⢮ ﭨ 樤   ,  襬   襩     ஭ 襣 饣.

 ⮩  ᤥ 筠 ⪠   ⢮ ᯮᮡ, 묨 ࠧ⨥ 孮       業 ᢮.     ᢮ ࠢ ஢ ᠬ।, ࠢ  ଠ樮 ᨬ   ࠢ  ਢ⭮, ଠ 襣 饣 ⢮  ⥫쭮 ⥯   ⮣, ᪮쪮 㡮  ᮧ ஧,  ன ⮫㫨 㦥 ᥣ,  , ᪮쪮 䥪⨢ ᬮ  ⨢.





2

  



設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, 1965 . । ⭮  [Bureau of the Budget] 뫮 ⮫  , ᪮  ॢ樮.  ⮣ ⮡ 뤥   ।⢠  ਮ⥭ ஢, ᮧ 孮 ࠭ , ௫ 㦨饣   ᮭ, ࠢ⥫  ⮢ । ନ஢ 樮 ଠ樮 業 [National Data Center]. ஥     ꥤ ଠ樨  ࠧ :   ᥫ   ࠧ饭   ९ ᥫ [Bureau of the Census];   㤮ன⢥   㤮 ⨪ [Bureau of Labor Statistics];     ᡮ   ࠢ [Internal Revenue Service]  ଠ樨  믫  ࠢ 樠쭮 客.  쭥襬 । ࠭   ଠ.

ᬮ    砫쭠 楫 砫  ⮬ ᭨ থ, 祭 ᪮ ⠫ ᭮,  ஥ ⠨  ᥡ  㣨 룮 .  饭樮쭮 ᨢ     筮   ଠ.   饭樮쭮     㤭⥩,  - ࠢ쭮 ᠭ ,  㣨 ஡, ࠪ  㯭⠡  .    ⠪  ࠢ⥫ (  ⮫쪮 !) ᯮ짮  ଠ ᠬ 䥪⨢ ࠧ.

ਭ⮭᪨  ᯥ⨢ ᫥ [Princeton Institute for Advanced Study] 㡫 ,  㧨 ন騩 ஥ ᮧ  ,  ஬ ਫ,  業ࠫ ࠭ ଠ樨 ᯥ  ᮪ ஢  ᭮  ⠪ ࠧ  ᯥ ਢ⭮  樮쭮 ⠡.   [Carl Kaysen], ४   㪮⥫ ᫥⥫᪮ 㯯, ⢥ত ⠪,   ਬ 室 ⥫ ,  ᯥ ⥫  ଠ樨  , ࠭  ਢ⭮  ᯥ ஫쭮 㦨饣  ᮭ. 横   ਢ  ⮬,  楯 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業 ᫠   ᮧ ஬  , ᮤঠ騩 ᠬ ஡ ଠ   ࠦ    ஦   ᬥ.     뫨 ࠭: ஭ ᢨ⥫⢮  ஦  ࠦ, ᢨ⥫⢮  ࠦ⢥, 誮 業,   ᪮ 易  宦  㦡,   , 樠 믫, ଠ    , 筮,   ᬥ.     ᯮ짮 ⥬  ࠭ ଠ樨  㯫.

 ஥    Saturday Review 23 1966 .    : <⮬⨧஢ ࠢ⥫⢮:    ᯮ짮 設⮭  饭 ࠢ 祫᪨ ᠬ   >.[7]    ⨣ ᢮ 楫.  থ প 孮᪮ 室   樨஢  蠭  ஡ ஧,   ᯮ짮   .  楢  New York Times Magazine 㡫    <   ⮬ >,  ⠪ ࠢ⥫⢥  業ࠫ  ଠ樨. ᠭ ᮬ म [Vance Packard], ஬ < ⢠> [The Naked Society] (ᥫ, 뢠騩,  ࠢ⥫⢮,   ࠧ⥫ ० ࣠   ), 㡫  Times 業஢   祢 㬥 ⨢ ஥:

 譮 ᭮ 業ࠫ  ଠ樨      ।祭 ஬   㪠 , ࠢ ⨬ ࠬ.   ⠫ 襩   饭  業ࠫ     ⥬ ࠭ ଠ樨,    ன ⥯   ᨬ  , ஫  設.[8]

६ .   1968  ⭮  ,  ᮬ  ⮬,   ࠪ᪮ ॠ樨 業 㤥 ।⠢  ᬮ७ .  ६ ᯥ樠   ।⠢⥫   ਪ᭮ ⭮  [House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy] ⨫ ,  ஬ ਫ,  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮         ࠧࠡ⪥ ஥⮢   , ࠡ  ᮧ 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業   ਮ⠭   ,  ஥  ᬮ ࠭஢ ਢ⭮,  ⭮  ᮢ訫 訡,  ࠧࠡ⠢ ।⥫쭮 楤 ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.

, ஢ ࢠ᪨ 㭨⮬  ࠬ ணࠬ 祭 ⢨ 孮  ⢠, ,  56% ਪ楢 ⨢ ᮧ 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業, ⠪    ਪ᭮ 筮 .  ⮬     [Jerry M. Rosenberg] ।०  ᢮  < ਢ⭮> [The Death of Privacy]:

  ⫥ ६   櫥 ଠ,  ᯮ짮 䨤樠쭮 ଠ樥, 祭   ய᪮ ९,  ࠭  ᢮ ⨢.

 ࠧ⨥ 孮 楤 業ࠫ ᡮ  , ᫥⢨ 㯮ॡ ⠭  殮묨,    ࠢ ।稢  㪠 让 㯯 .[9]

樮 ଠ樮 業 ⠪    ஥.  ⮣  ⢮ த ࠧ ᢮ ᮡ⢥  ⥬.  ᮧ   ,    ᯮ짮  ᫨誮 騬  롮 । ப᪨ ⮬  ⢫  ஫  졠 ⤥ , ࠢ⥫⢮ । ⪨  .

ਪ᪨  ᫥ ਬ ࠢ⥫⢠,  ਮ  ⥬,  砫쭮 뫨 ࠧࠡ⠭  㤮⢮७ 㦤 ࠢ⥫⢠. ᪮ 襭  ᮧ 業ࠫ ࠭ ଠ樨 । ,   孮 ᫥ 쭥訥 30 . ஥ 業ࠫ   ⮫  ࠧ⨥ ᢥ㯭 ᫨⥫ ᮢ  ᮪᪮ ⥫㭨樮 ⥩,    80-  ࠧࠡ稪 ᮧ  襣, ॣ쭮, ⠡, ࠪ᪨  易  ᮡ ﬨ.  襭 ஭ ஥  㡮 ﭨ  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ 筮,   ﭨ   .




ਤ   


, 1999.    樨      讪   ଥ  ⢥   Mileage Plus First Card. ᬮ    ⪨ ⮨ ᥣ  3  ,  ।祫    ࠭  ᯮ짮  .  㯪  窥 ਭᨫ  ,   祬      50    ணࠬ   ᠦ஢ - 筮  ਮ⥭    ⮢ <㤠  ⭮>     ⮢.  ਤ   ᫥     ᮢ蠥 㯪    ᪮ 謠. 줥    ⥬⨪    [Dr. David Chaum] ਤ㬠 ஭ 筮, E-Cash,-  ⥬ ⥦,  ॡ⥫ ᮢ 㯪 ஭,   ᥡ  ⮬.   ।,  ⠭ ६,     ⮫쪮   ࠦ ⨢ ᫥   㯮,     ⢮, ᫨ ଠ  ࠭樨 ?  ⮫쪮   쬠 ਣ १⮢ ⠪ 뢠 <ணࠬ ਢথ>, ન ਬ஬   ⥬ ।  United: ᮧ     ஡ ஭ ⨭ ⨩ ॡ⥫,   ⨭ ᮧ  প   ᠬ ᫥㥬.
 ᥣ  ,   .  ,    ᤥ   ⠭   ⥫䮭 ,     쪠 -  㡨 ᮧ. ॥ ᥣ,        ᬠਢ 쬨,        । 㯭 㯫,   ॢ 뫠   ⮬ ᫥    ⥫䮭 .  ⭮,  ६ ᫥⢨  䠪 뢠 䥤ࠫ쭮  Murrah  宬-  1995    ᠬ ᮬ ⥫, ।⠢ , 뫨   , ᤥ   [Timoty McVeigh]   ᮬ [Terry Nichols]  ।祭 ⥫䮭 ⠬. ६ ࠢ ⮫ ,  , ᤥ  ⨬ ⠬ (ਮ⥭  ),  묨  ᫥묨.   ᠬ  ଠ   ᤥ  ⠪   ⥫쭮 ࠭.  ।⠢ ࠭ ᯥ , ᤥ   ,  娬᪨ , ⥫, ᪫   ﭪ 㧮.[10]     ,     ﭭ ⠪஢  ⥫䮭  祭 ᪮쪨 楢, ।⢮ ᪮ , 㭥襬 ᠬ 讥 ᫮    ࠪ⮢  ਨ [p5].[11]

 1960-    ஢  ࠭ ਭ ࠢ⥫.  ।०,  業ࠫ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ᮧ     饬 ⠫୮ ०. <  ।⢨,  ᫨ 让  -⠪   ,   㤥  ࠭,  騩  ,  蠭  䥪⨢ ⮬ ப>,- ᠫ    ᢮   New York Times Magazine.

㡫樨 㣨 ୠ⮢,   ठ,  ஭ ᮧ 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業,    ⠭ ண.  ஬ ⢮ ஢, ਭ , 㭠 㦡  ⭮ , ᥪ㭤 䨪 ࠧ ꥬ ଠ樨    .      ⠥  ᮭ쭠 ଠ.  樮쭮    ᮧ 㣮  -   .




  諨  ⮣


᫨    -  ਧ樨 ਪ, । ᢮ ⥭ द 設⮭  㣨 ࠬ 樨.  1787  設⮭  諥 ,   㡫  ஢ ९ ᥫ   .   ६  뫮 筮 , , ᪮  ,  ᫥ ᥫ  ⮢ ᫨, ᫮ ९ ᫠ ⭮.

஡ 砫    饬 ⢥  ᢮,  ਪ᪨ .  㣨 ࠢ⥫⢥ ணࠬ ९ ਮ५ 玲 ࠪ.  1880   ⠫   ⮬ ⥫:  ⠫ 㬥⮬  ஡ 祭 樨.  ⠭ 䨪஢   ९ ⠪ , ᥬ , ,  ஦, ࠧ,   ஢ ࠬ⭮.   ଠ ࠢ﫠  設⮭  ଫ   ⠡.  ⢫ ࠪ᪨ : ન 믮﫨  窠 ࠧ 樨, 뢠 ᫮ ⢥⮢,   । ਩.  砫  襭 室 18 ,  ⮬ ᮢ蠫 讥 ᫮ 訡, 믮 ࠡ ⠭  ᫮.

ଠ  - 祭  ⥫, 㤭 㦡 ९ , ᮧ訩 設, ⮬⨧஢ ⨭ 樨  ࠡ⪥ 祪 ९ ᥫ. ᫥   ᮧ 設 ࠪ᪨ ࠧਫ  ᥬ,   筮  ਢ  ᮧ  1896   ᮡ⢥  - Tabulating Machine Company. ᫥⢨  뫠 ਮ⥭ 㣮 , 稢襩   International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). [  ।⠢ 㧥 ஢ (⮭, )  ᪨ 業஬ (⨭-, ୨)]


ଠ  襫  㦡 ९  1879   ᪭ Columbia College.  ࠧ   ᭮ ஡  ९  ५  ᮧ 設,    ⮬⨧஢ ࠡ મ.  祭   ᫥ ஡,  ⥬   砫 設஥  ᪮ 孮᪮  [MIT]. ⨢  設⮭,  ࠡ⠫   ⥭⭮ ࠢ, ⮬ ⠢ 㦡   1884   ⥫⢮  ᭮ ⥫쭮.[12]

 ५ ᯮᮡ ࠭ ଠ樨 ⥬ ஡ । ࠧ ⢥⨩   ⭮ 㬠. 뢠 ⥬  ⢥  ࠧ ,  뫮    ଠ, 室 㦡 ९.  1889   먣ࠫ  㦡 ९ ⥭  稫 ࠪ  ⮬⨧஢ ࠡ 祪 ९   ᢮ 設  ᫥饬 . 設 ࠡ⪠  﫠 ᥣ  ,   ⠫ ⭮   䨣ன । ᯥ樠⮢  ९.

 1896   ८ࠧ ᢮   ௮ - Tabulating Machine Company.  1911   த ᢮ , 稢   1  ஢  । 㤭  ࠢ॥ - Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR).    CTR 﫠  ᮭ [Thomas J. Watson],   1924  २   International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).

 1920-  IBM த ᮢ襭⢮ ᪠ ⠡஢    뭪  ᢮ 㤮. ଠ ᮧ 騩 ⠡  1,  뢮 १  㬠, ஢騪  80,  ஢ ⮯ 祪  ᨬ  ஡   ⢥⨩.  1928  IBM ࠧࠡ⠫   80   10 ப. 䮪 ⮣ ଠ ਬ﫨   1980- . ( 80    ᥩ :  ନ ࢮ ⥫⠩  ਭ 80 , ⠪     ନ.   1981  IBM ⠫ த ᮭ , ਭ  ࠭, ⢥, ⮦ ⠢ 80 ᨬ.)

,  IBM ⢨ 뢮  ᢮ ࠧ⨨  ࠧ  ६  ᨨ.  ࠡ 訫 ᢮ ࠡ ,  .  १ ࠭ . 㧢  ᭮ ᮢ६ 樠 ࠭⨩  ஭ 㤠⢠.

 1935   ਫ । 㧢⮬ <  樠쭮 客> [Social Security Act].  ᮮ⢥⢨  ﬨ ⮣  ࠡ⮤⥫ 易    믫  ࠡ⭨ । 業,    ᢮ <ਡ>  ࠢ  㬬  ࠢ⥫⢥  樠쭮 客 [Social Security Trust Fund].     ⢮ 樠쭮 客 (⠪   ६ 뢠 ࠢ 樠쭮 客) 믫稢 ᮡ  ࠡ, 㤮ᯮᮡ   ନ.

祭 ᫮ ⮬  ⥫쭮  ⢠ 뫮 ᯥ祭 ᮭ쭮  ᫥   ।, ⠪  ࠧ 樠 믫 ⭮ ࠡ⭨ ᥫ 筮   ⮣ ⥫.  砫,  ⢮ 樠쭮 客   ⮫쪮 ᫥ 室  ࠡ⭨,   ࠭  ଠ, 稭  ࢮ   㤮 ⥫쭮   祭 筮 讣 ਮ ᫥  ᬥ,  ᥬ 砫 믫   ନ.




䮪


। ⮬ 䮪 뫨 ᭮ ⥫ ଠ樨  ⠡஢  ஢  ன  80-  XIX    60-  XX ,     . ࠦ  䮪 ᯮ짮 ଠ (⠭⨧  1928 )  80   10 ப. ⢥⨥  । ⮫  ப ।⠢ ⤥쭮 ᫮,   ⢥⨩   ப - 㪢. 䮪 ப ᯮ짮   80-  XX ,   ⥬ ᯮ   .[䮪  ।⠢  ᮬ (Bradley Ross)]

  ࠧ  1936  ⢮ 樠쭮 客 ࠧ  ⠫ <㯭襩 壠᪮ ன  ஢ ਨ>.[13] ⢮ 뢠,   ਤ    25  ࠡ⭨,   ⠢ 45 .[14]  ᯥ祭 ⮢୮  ⢮ ᢮  ࠡ饬  樠쭮 客 [Social Security Number, SSN].  뫠  ࠡ⭨,  ⠪ ஡  ᯥ樠쭮 <⥫쭮> 䮪.   ⢥ 樠쭮 客    ࠡ饣  ஡   ଠ  祭  祭 ⮣  室.  1943  ⢮ ஢  祬 100  ,  ࠭  ॡ 頤 ਬ୮     .

 1951    ࠢ  樠 믫.   ॡ ࠭  䮪 ⥫쭮 ଠ樨,  㦥 १      ⠢ . ࠢ 樠쭮 客,  ஥  뫮 २ ⢮,      ࠡ饣 ⥫ 窨, ⠪   ਢ   १ 㢥祭 頤, 室   ࠭.  ⥬ 樠쭮 客   ⠫ 㣮 롮,   ᢮     - ஭ ࠡ    ᮧ IBM   ࢮ  - IBM 705.  ⮣   㤮 ⥫쭮 樨 ⠫ ࠭   䮪,    . 設 뫨 ⠭  1956 ,  ࠧ   ,   䮪 㦥 뫨   80- .




 ୮ ஢ 樠쭮 客


砫쭮  । ᯮ짮  樠쭮 客 (SSN)  ⢥ 㭨ᠫ쭮 䨪   ਪ᪮ ࠦ,  㪢쭮 १ 10   ⠫ ⠪묨.

 1943  १ 㧢  ᯮ殮, 뢠饥  䥤ࠫ ⢠ ᯮ짮  樠쭮 客  䨪樨 ࠦ,  ࠧࠡ⪨ ண ⥬ 㬥樨   ⤥쭮 ⢠.

⢮ ஭ ⪠  ᯮ짮 <਩ ஢>  諮  ᯮ짮 ஢ 樠쭮 客.

⢮   ࠭ [Veterans Administration] ⠫ ᯮ짮 SSN   믫 㢮 㦠騬.

ࠫ쭮 ࠢ 樨 [Federal Aviation Administration, FAA] ਭ﫮 SSN  ⢥ ஢ 業 ⮢.

  ࠦ᪮ 㦡 [Civil Service Commission] ਭ﫠 SSN  ⢥ ᭮ 䨪  䥤ࠫ 㦠.

  砫 ⮣   ⨪ ᪫﫨  ,  롮  樠쭮 客  ⢥ 饭樮쭮 䨪  祭 㤠祭. ࢠ ஡ 砫 ᮡ⢥   9-筮 ᫠ 뫮  筮    ࠦ,  ६ ꥧ  ࠭   १⮢   XXI . ᫥⢨   SSN  砩 ࠧ ࠭ ᫮  让 ⭮   ॠ쭮 騬 SSN,     ࠧ筮  襭⢠  㪫  . 㣠 ஡ 易  ᯮᮡ ᢮ SSN.  ⫨稥  ᥬ⭮ ࠭ ࠪ⨪ ᢮ 䨪  ஦, SSN ᢠ ᫥ ࠢ 쬠  ࠢ 樠쭮 客.  १  砫 SSN  ࠧ ६,      !  ᫥ ⮪ SSN: ⢨ ⠪ 뢠 <஫쭮 ࠧ鸞> - ,    ଠ樨,  ⢥ত ४⭮ ⠫   .  ⮩  㦨     ।⠢ .   ⪨  㢥稢 ꥬ ⮢୮ ଠ樨,  ࠭﫠     SSN  ⢥ 쭮 䨪.  䠪 ⢥ত,  SSN    ஫ 䨪,   ᢮ 砫쭮  -   ᨮ  樠 믫.

室   ᮮࠦ  1948  樮쭠 㦡   ᥫ [National Office of Vital Statistics] । ᯮ짮  ᢨ⥫  ஦.  1 ﭢ 1949   ᢨ⥫⢮  ஦  뫨  㭨 ,   祭 ᪮쪨      ᮡ SSN.

 ࠭  ⥫ ਭ 㭨ᠫ 樮 䨪,    ஥஢  ࠢ塞.  㬡᪮ 㭨  ⨭ [Alan Westin] ᠫ  1967 :

 1949  1950   뫠 ࣭ ⨪    ࠢ    ᮧ <楩᪮ 㤠⢠>, 㦤 ਪ 㣠 ࠧ <讣 >.  뫠 筮 ᨫ쭠, ⮡ 㡥 24  ⪠    ॠ樨 .  諮 ⪠  ⥫쭮 樠⨢, 뤢⮩  ॠ樨 ⮩ 䥤ࠫ쭮 ணࠬ.[15]

 1961   ࠢ ⠫    ⮩ ⥬   ᢮ ᮡ⢥ 䨪樮 .     ⪫  ᫨誮 ,  ࠢ 뫮 ।ᠭ ᯮ짮 SSN,    ᤥ  ᫥饬 .

   ,  ࠢ⥫ 뫮 ᫨誮 㤭 ᯮ짮 SSN  䨪樨 ࠦ  ᢮  ⥬. ᯮ짮  뫮 : ࠧ     ,  ᠭ  砩  ।७ , , ࠬ   ६  㤭 뫮 ࠡ  .      ࣥ  <஢> ୠ⨢.  1969 , ⢥   ᫥⥫  ࢠ᪮ 㭨,   ᯮ⮢  ⮭ ⥫쭮 㫨஢ ஡:

,  㦥   ᢮ ᯮ殮  ଠ: [] ᫨   ᢥ  ,    ࠢ 祣  ᬮ  ⨬ .      ,    .   ਭ ,   .  ।     ᠬ  ᬥ,   , ⮡  ஢   樠쭮 客.[16]




ਪ ਭ SSN


ࠢ⥫⢮  뫮  ⢥ ࣠樥, ᯮ饩  樠쭮 客.   ᯮ짮 SSN   ७   ஢ ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७;  ⥪ SSN ᯮ짮  ⢥ ஢  ; 祡   쭨 ᯮ짮 SSN  ⢥ 䨪஢ 㤥⮢  樥⮢.   ⭮  ᠬ묨 ᨢ묨 짮⥫ﬨ SSN ⠫ । ,  ਧ஢ ᢮ ⥫쭮  1960-   㦨,  SSN 祭 㤮  ࠡ⪥ ଠ樨.

筮,  ।⮢ 砫   1960-. ਪ  㯭 㯪  ।  ६ 砭 ࠦ᪮ .  㯫   ।   ᥩ ࠭ ࠭   ਪ᪨ ࠦ,   䨪  室  ⥦ᯮᮡ.  饭  ଠ樥  ॡ⥫᪨ । ।   ᮧ ᢮ ࣠ - 樠 ।  [Associated Credit Bureaus, ACB].

 1969  ᬥ ப ᯮ짮 ଠ । ,  設⢮ ਪ楢  ⭮ ।⠢  ⮬,  ଠ ⠬ ࠭, ࠢ    ᠬ 䠪 ⢮ । . ⢥, ⨪  ।   ᪠  ॡ⥫  ᮡ࠭   ଠ樥.

᭮ 稭 ⠪ ᥪ⭮ 뫮 ᮤঠ .  ⢥ত,   ᮤঠ 䠪 ଠ: 믫祭 , প 樨 ⥦  । ⠬, ଠ  ⮩ ᬥ ᮢ 쬨, 뢠  ।஢.    ⨭, 㯠 । ᮬ   1970 , ,  <  ᮤঠ 䠪, ⨪, ⮢ ଠ  : ࠪ᪨     祫: ᥬ ஡, ࠡ, 誮 , ⢥, ᥪ㠫   ᪮ ⥫쭮>. 祢, ᬥ   ६ ⠫,  ᫨ 祫 㤠ਫ ᢮    । ᥪ㠫 ,  , ⭮,  騪. 㤨⥫쭮,  ᬥ 뢠  ⢥,   ଠ ᮡࠥ  ਪ.

 1965  1970   ᥭ᪨   ⥫ ࣠  ⮢ ஢  蠭, 饭 ࠧ ਨ ᡮ ଠ樨  ।.[17] ⥫ ⠫ ࠧ  ⮩ ࠭ ᥪ祭 ਨ.  ᢨ⥫  設⢥  蠭    ⨭, -਩᪨  ⠪訩 㫥 ᡮ ଠ樨  ॡ⥫  ࣠訩 १ ⨪ ࠪ⨪,  ᮡ࠭ ଠ ।⠢  ࢮ  , ஬ ᠬ ॡ⥫.

 ᠬ 讥 ᯮ⢮  ⨭, ⠪  ⥫ 뢠   ਧ樨,   ਢ   襭 樨.  ⫨稥  㬠 , ᮤন   뫮 ਮ᪨ १,   ⮭  ଠ樨, ࠬ 祣  㦭 <뢠>. <७ ᮤন     ਢ   ஧ ࠦ᪨ ᢮, ਢ⭮, ᠬ 魮 祫, ⮬    ⮩ ଠ樨 १砩 >,- ਫ ⨭.   ஢  ᮧ ࠥ  祫,  ᥬ ᮢ襭묨  訡, 訢 , ⠪ ࠧ, ࠢ    蠭.

 ⨭  ࠪ᪮ ⢥ত.  ᢮  < ⢮>   ᪠뢠   18-⭥ ,    ந  ࠡ       稣, ᬮ  ⥫ ४⥫ 쬠  ⥫,     樨  த.  稭 뫠  ⮬,   13-⭥       ࠦ  .  १      ⥬,  ଠ樨 ன   ࠪ᪨    ॣ.  ᯮᮡ ஢ ࠭ ଠ     ।⠢   ࢮ ॡ, 祫 筮    ᯨ᪠ 稣᪨ ࣮楢.

⨭  㣨 ᢨ⥫ ਢ  ⢥ ਬ ⢮ ਩,   뫮 ⪠  뤠 ।, 客  ਥ  ࠡ - ୮ 訡 - ࠢ쭮     ଠ樨. । 砨,  ९뢠      ᮧ묨 .   ,    ⠢﫠 㯠⥫   ।,  㯠⥫ ⪠뢠  稢, ⠪   ந ᮮ⢥ 㯮.    ࠢ ᥣ 뫠  ஭ த, ⠪    ஫஢ 䠩  ଠ樥  ।.

 ⢥ 㬥 ।  ,   ⥫쭮      樮쭮 , 饩  ।.  ⮢୮ ଠ樨  ।⭮ ਨ  業  뤠 । ⭮ 騪,  ⢫ 筮 ।⮢, 㯥ଠથ     த -  ।.   ⮫쪮  㡨 ।  ,    쭮 㤠   騪,   ᬮ  । - ⢨ ଠ樨.

 室 뫮  室  ⮣ 㯨 ⨢稩.   ஭, ⨭,   㣨  ஭ ⢥ত,  ७ ଠ樨  㬠    ᮧ     㯮ॡ.  裡  ⨬ ਧ ᫨ 室 뫮 ࠭.  ᯥ  ଠ樮 孮 ⢥ত ⭮.  ᠬ  ᥡ  < ⥩  ஫  ⥭樠쭮 묨 ⢨ﬨ>,-    ठ [Dr. Harry . Jordan], ᭮⥫ ୨᪮  Credit Data Corporation. ( 1968  Credit Data Corporation 뫠 ਮ⥭  TRW Inc.  ⠫ 뢠 TRW-Credit Data,   1996  ᭮ 뫠 뤥  TRW    稫  Experian.)  蠭     ਪ᭮ ⭮   1968  ठ ,     ணࠬ஢ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  ਭ㤨⥫쭮 믮﫨 楤, ᯥ稢騥 ਢ⭮, ਬ ⮬᪮ ࠭ ॢ .[18]

 १  蠭  ५ 1971   ਭ ⥫ ਠ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>.[19]  ⮣ ⮡ ⢥ ମ ਧ ।⭮ ᫨,  ।⠢  ࠢ ॡ⥫  ࠭    ।   ଠ,  ࠢ   ᢮ , ࠢ ४஢ 訡筮 ଠ樨,  ⠪ ࠢ ᥭ    ᢮ ᨩ ᮡ⨩, ᫨ । ⢥ত,  룮  ॡ⥫ ଠ ୠ.

 ।⠢⥫ ।⭮ ᫨ ⨢ ⠪ 室,   ஧  ࠧ ⮬ ᮢ ॡ⥫    ᢮ .  ⮣  ந諮. ந ⨭  1972  ᫥ ,  ᫥ ਭ  ᫮    ᢮  ᫮ ⥫쭮 -  0,5  0,7%.[20]   ᮢ     ॡ⥫   ᠬ묨 騬 襭ﬨ  ࠢ  ।⭮ ᫨,   䥤ࠫ ࣠  ⤥ ⮢   । ।  ᪨   ॡ⥫.

 ⨭

  1968   㬡᪮ 㭨  ⨭ 㯨  ﬨ । ᯥ樠 ⮬    ਪ᭮ ⭮  ⭮⥫쭮 ஧ ⮩ ࠦ᪮ ᢮, 室饩  । . 㯫 ⨭  祢 ﭨ  ਭ⨥ ᮬ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>.  ⠪ 㡥 ᮢ⭨ १  ᮭ [Elliot Richardson]  室 ᮧ ⨢   ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨 [Advisory Committee on Automated Personal Data Systems].  1972  塞 ᮭ  ⨫ 祭  㬥, ᮤঠ騩 < ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨>.   ᨨ ᮭ ⬥砫 ⠪,  <䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ ࠫ  ஫  ७ ᯮ짮 SSN>. [ ਢ  ࠧ襭 ࠢ⥫. c 1968 by The New York Times Co]


ਮ ᮫樨  ।⭮ ᫨ ⠫ 1970-  1980- .      ନ஢  ᥣ譥 ,    﫨  ᭮ : Equifax ( Retail Credit), Experian ( Credit Data Corporation)  Trans Union.      ਬ୮  ஬ ଠ樨: ᯨ᪮ । , ᪨ ।⮢, 㤥᪨ ।⮢  㣨   ᫥ ᥬ    ⥫ ,  ⥩. (⥫ 業 ⥦ᯮᮡ ࠭  祭 ᥬ , ᢥ  ⢥ -  祭  , <⥫> । ਨ  ࠭ ,   ࠪ⨪  ଠ ⠪ 㭨⮦  ⢨ ᥬ .)   ⭮  ࠭ ଠ  । 믫, ᤥ ६,  ⠪  ⢥ থ 믫  30, 60  90 .

஬  ⮢, Equifax, Experian  Trans Union ।⠢   ⮩ ଠ樨 ⢮ 㣨 .  ⥫    ⠭ <३⨭> 騪,  業   10-쭮 誠  ᭮   ।⭮ ਨ.  ᭮     ⠪ 祭 ᪨ ᢥ, ᪨   ᥫ  ॡ⥫᪨ ਢ窨. ᬮ     ॡ⥫   ଠ  ᢮ ।⭮ ३⨭,    ।⠢.    ,  ⠪ ࠪ⨪ 蠥 <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>,   ᠬ    ⠪,  ३⨭ - 稭 ⭠     ࠭  ॡ⥫ ଠ樨.

ᬮ   1971 ,  ॡ⥫ த ,  ⥫ ꥬ ଠ樨, ࠭  ।  ,  ᮤন 訡,    ᮮ⢥ ⢨⥫쭮,  १ 祣     ।  쥧   稭.

騥 業 ।ᯮᮡ  ⠪ ⠫  ᢮ ࠢ  ।⠢   ଠ樨  ॡ⥫ (⠪  , ,  ⥫䮭   樠쭮 客)  㣮    㣮 楫. 㬥஢  ⥬,   ଠ   ଠ樥  ⥦ᯮᮡ   室  ⮩ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>,  頥  ।⠢  楫 ⫨  ।⮢  客, ⠪  ࠢ ४  㣨  ஧ .  ⭮, Trans Union ॡ  ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮ [Federal Trade Commission, FTC] ।⠢  ࠢ  ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨  楫 થ⨭.

筮,    뢠  ।.   ⢥,  ஬ ॡ  ।  㯪 , ⮬,  祭 ॡ ࠪ᪨ ᥬ, ஬,  , ᮪ᯥ祭 ᥬ, ⪠  뤠 - । ⮬᪨ 砥 襭  ࠢ  業 童 ⢠.   ।  ⮨  ⮬,  ஬  ,  ⪠  뤠 ।,   :  ᨫ ᮢ饥  쨬- , ⠫ ⢮ ப᪮ 訡   筮  ।⭮ ਥ ᯮ짮 襭.




    


 ਪ  ᮡ  ࠢ,   ९    ஦ ᯮ祭  ஥஢묨 묨 ⥬,   ᥣ  ⭮ ࠢ  ⨢稢묨 ॠﬨ ᮢ६ . 筮 ᯮ 砩  ⨢    [Steve and Nancy Ross],   ⢮  砫 1980-  ⨫   祭 ।⭮ ९樥 <>  ࠢ.[21]

 1983    먣ࠫ ⨯ -ਪ᪮  ஡ ࠢ [Japanese American Institute for Management Sciences]  ਣ襭 ஢  楢  .   ⨢   ६  ᢮ ୠ⮬  ⠭⮬  ࠬ, ⮬ ᥬ  ᯮ ࠢ  ਪ祭   쬨.  砭 ⢨  㫨  ᢮   ,  -.

 ᪮쪮 楢  稫 ਣ襭 ஢   ࠭ 쭥 ⮪  .  蠭 ᪠ 뫮 , ⮬  ᭮ ᮡࠫ 祬  堫. ⨢  ⮬ ६ 稫 ࠡ  䠪 ୠ⨪ 㬡᪮ 㭨, ⮬ 㦤  .  楫   訫 ᤠ ᢮   ७,  ⨢ ॥堫     -થ.

᪮ ᫥ 饭  த  ⨢   稫 祭 ⭮ 쬮   ࠢ:      . <  易  ⥫䮭  ᮬ  ࠢ  ᢨ ( -)  ᮢ,  ᮡ⢥ ந室,- ᯮ  .-  ,   稢 㦠騩,   祭 ᮢ ⥫䮭 ᥤ  ᭨  ஡. 㦠騩 ,  ந諮, 易  ᮬ  ୨,  㦥 १  ᮢ     ࠢ  ७ﬨ,    浪,     ⥭   㤥 ᫠ ᮮ⢥饥 쬮>.    .

ந襤襥 ⠫ १⮬ ப 祭 ⥫  訡,  ।   ᯮ짮 ஢. ᪮  ⨢   ᠬ ᯥ稢 ᥡ ࠡ⮩, ..  ࠡ⠫  ,   뫨 ⠫쭮 㯫稢 室  ᠬ⥫쭮. 室   ⮬ 1983 ,  ᫠ 祪  3500 ஢  ॣ ᨭ 業  ࠢ  -,   訡筮 ९ࠢ   ᨭ 業  ୨.

 ࠧ ⮬ 1983   ࠢ 﫮   ⥬,   祭  ⠫  ⥦  ᥣ   祭.

ᨭ 業  ୨  ⮣, ⮡ ࠢ ଠ  㯫祭     ,       ᥬ ᮢ.

 ᨭ 業  - 稫   ᮢ  1983 ,  ࠧ  ⨫,  㬬   室  ଠ樥  ॠ쭮 㯨 믫 ( ࠩ ,  -᪨ )  3500 ஢.  ⮬ ᭮  ࠢ   ⨢  쬮  ॡ   㬬.

  ࠧ   ६  뫠  ,  ⨢ ᭨   -થ. ᬮ    ᥬ ᯮ廊 뫠 㯠    ᯮ   , 쬮  뫮 ᫠, ⠪    뫠 ⪠ < 뫠>.  १ ⨢       ⢮.   ࠢ ᫠   쬮  ।०       ⮢   ᮢ  㪠 ⭮ .  ७ ந஢ 쬮  ⢠, ⠪  ᠬ     ஡.

,  ࠢ ⠫ ᪠ ᪨  ᮢ  -,    , ⠪  ᯮ짮   -     -થ. ᪮ ᪠    㤠,      ਭ騩 ᠬ   -.

 祭 ஡   ⠫, ⮬  設⢮  砥  ।⠬ ⮫쪮  ᫮.   ᥣ 祭  .  ⮫쪮       Trans Union  Equifax.   ᯮ  ଠ樥  ⮬,    ᥬ ᮢ ⮨ 10. ஢   . ⮬,    1985  諮 ६ த ᥬ ।⭮  Mid Atlantic MasterCard,  ⮬᪮ த,   㫨஢ .

<砫    TRW,- ᪠뢠 ⨢ .-  ⢥⨫,    ஡   ᥣ  㦭 ᫠    쬮  ᭥ 樨,     ଠ   .   ᮢ, 㤥  ⮢ୠ ଠ 㤠   ᥩ,  稫 ⢥ "".    ⮣! ᫨  襩 ।⭮ ਨ  ।  ଠ,    㤠 ,    冷  ᭥>.

< ᫠   쬠. ᫨  ।⠢⥫ , ଠ 뫠 饭   , ⪮ 㫨஢    .  ⠪ ਫ,  祭 ⢥ত饥 쬮  襩 ""   ࣠. ஡ 砫  ⮬,    [TRW  Equifax] 㦥 த ଠ   騪  187 ᨬ । ,     뫮     ᥡ  ⭮>,- த ⨢.

 ⮬,    ୮ ࠦ ⮫쪮  뫥祭 ⥬, ᨬ ।  ᭮ <ࠧ>  TRW ⮢୮ ଠ樥    ࠢ    ᮢ  . ॡ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>, 饥 ࠢ  ४஢ ଠ樨  ᥡ,  ࠡ⠫, ᬮ   ࠭. <㪢쭮  뫮   㤠  ଠ  ⥬>,- ᯮ .

 筮   㤠 㡥 Mid Atlantic ॢ  ᥬ । .   뫮 ஬ ⨦,   祭 ᫥ ᥬ  ᥬ  ᬮ   ।     㣮 䨭ᮢ ०,  ⪠뢠  뤠 ᪨ ।⮢,      䨭஢ ᮡ⢥ .  뫨 <ਧ>  אַ ᫥ ⮣ ᫮:    ।⭮ ਨ         ॥  ८ନ  ।   .

᫨   㤠 ⠭  Mid Atlantic,    ࠧ 㤠  : < ࠡ 易  .      ப ⮬  ।⭮ ?        ⨭? ।⪠ - ꥬ  ᥤ .  ⢨     ࠡ뢠  >,-  ⨢ .

<  80- 㬬  室 襩 ᥬ ࠦ 6- ᫮.    1992     㯠   ।  । ⠬.   १ ᥬ ,  "  筮 ⭮  ।⠬", ଠ       뫠 㤠  襣 ।⭮ >.

 窠  ।⭮ ਨ ᮢ  ⮬  뫠 ⠢.  ⨢  稫    ।ᯮᮡ ᢮ ᥬ,  ⨫     ࠭  -     ⠫ Spiegel  . <Spiegel ⢥ত,         ⨫  . ⥫쭮,        ,     ⠢﫨  . ,     ⠢ -   [㤠  ᫠ ⮢]. TRW  ᫥  砩, [,  ࠩ ,] ⠫  ᤥ.  ⮬ ६   㧭  樤, Spiegel 㦥 㤠 ᮮ⢥騥   ᢮ ஢,   뫮  ஢ ଠ, ࠧ  .  ࠧ,  ⠫ ⮫쪮  ᥬ   ⥦ᯮᮡ>.

 ᥬ    㭨.  1991   ﬥ [James Williams], 㤭 ᯮ  -થ  Consolidated Information Service, 饩 業 ᪮ 筮 ।⮢, ஠஢ 1500 ⮢, 祭  TRW, Equifax  Trans Union, 㦨,  43%   ᮤঠ 訡.  ⮬   1400 楢 த ࢨ   ମ (3000 ⥫) 뫨 ⬥祭  ୮ ⥬ TRW  ⥫  ⥫⢠, <᫥⢨ ⮣  㦠騩 TRW, ᮡ騩  ଠ,  訡 ਭ     >.[22] ᬮ    樤 ⠫ ﭨ ⢥,   㤮 㤠   TRW ४஢ ᢮ .  砩    ਤ,  ,  㦠騩 Equifax ⠪ ९⠫    䠬.

⭨ ਢ⭮ ⢥ত,     ᮤঠ 讥 ⢮ 訡.    訡, ⠪  ࠢ , ⢥.  㣨    ᬥ訢 ।⭠ ଠ   ᮢ襭 ࠧ   宦 ,    ᮤঠ ४ ଠ.

ᮡ ᪮࡭,  ⢠    ࠢ  ,     㪠뢠  訡. ਬ,  1989   ⮭ [Bonnie Guiton], ᫥⢨ ᮢ⭨     ॡ⥫, ᨫ  ᢮ ।⭮   㦨   ଠ  ᮢ襭 ⭮  : 祢, -  ନ ।    . ⮭ ⨫  ।⭮   ॡ 㤠 訡 ଠ. < 祭 ⢥ ⢥ত,  訡 ࠢ   ଠ 㤠   ᥩ>,- ᪠뢠 ⮭  蠭    ᥭ 1989 .[23] ,  १ ᪮쪮 楢  ୮ ᨫ , ଠ  襭᪮  -०   ⢮.

訡  ।  - ࠭ . ⮭ ⬥⨫ ⠪,    㤭 訢 ᢮   室   ⢮ 訡. 筮      祫,   室  訡  ᢮ । . 祬  뫨   ⪨,  ଠ, ⥫쭮   । ३⨭ 祫.

 樠樨 । , , ᯠਢ  50% 砥.   , । த  । ⮢  550  ᮤঠ 訥 訡. ᭮  ᫥, ஢  1991     ᠫ⨭ ମ Arthur Andersen, 訡,  ॠ쭮    襭  ।⠢ ।,   祬  1% । ⮢.   砥,       㦥 ⪠  ।⠢ ।.

॥ ᥣ,  業 ࠢ.   室  ᢮ ।  筮,  筮  ⥫. 筮, ⥭ ।    樨  訡,  讥 誮  ।⭮ ९樨   ⠭   ⪠  뤠  .  ⠪     ࠢ,    ࠢ  ਢ  樨,  । 뤠 祫 ,   樨,  ⭮ ࠦ  । ⪠뢠.




ࠦ 筮: ࠤ <>


ਨ,  ந襤襩  ᥬ쥩 , ⠢﫨 ᭮  ஡ ।   1980-  1990- .   ᫥     ⨭ ࠬ᪨    㯫, ⠢ 묨 ᫥⢨ 㯭  ।⭮, ⠪  筮 ଠ樨. 諥 㧭  樠쭮 客 - 祫,  ᥡ  । 祪   ,  १   ⠬ 室 ⮬ 祫. (    諥,   樠쭮 客 ⮢  ᪨ 믨᪠.)    襭  ।⪠ ।⢥, 㯠  ᥡ ⮢, ࠢ  ண騥 ⢨,   ண ࠭. 㣨 ᯮ  ७ 奬 襭⢠, ॢ ਮ⥭  ⥬    죨.  㯫 ⠫ ⮫쪮 ࠭,  ਮ५  ᮡ⢥  - ࠦ 筮 [identity theft].

 諥 砫 ଠ  ७ 筨:  ५ 1996  㯯 㦠 ࠢ 樠쭮 客 뫮 ।   த 筮 ଠ樨 11000 ࠦ ਬ 㣠,  ᯮ짮   ⨢樨 ࠤ ।       ⮢  ஬ 㬬.[24] । 砨,  㯭    뢠 த᪨   ᪠ 믨᮪  ᪨ ⠬  ।⠬.

砩, ந襤訩  設⮭᪨ ୠ⮬ ⨢  [Stephen Shaw],  ⨯.[25]   ४ ⭨  1991  த ⮬  ૠ,  ਤ,  宦  ⥢  [Steven Shaw], 稫   ।⭮  ⨢ .   뫮  ⮣.  祭   Equifax  ᨢ ४  ᢮   ।⠢ । ⮢ ଠ, 騬 ⮬ﬨ. 㣠 ।⠢﫠 த , 㧭  ⥭樠쭮 㯠⥫,     ந ஢  ।⭮ . ⭥ ᥣ,    ਤ ᯮ짮  , ⮡ <᫨> -  ᮧ   ⭠ ।⭮ ਥ, ⠥ ⨢ .

 ⮫쪮 ⥢   ਤ 㧭  樠쭮 客    ଠ ⨢   設⮭,  稫  < 筮> ᫥.  ᢥ  筮 ।⭮ ९樨 ⨢ ,  ।  ᮤঠ 騩  ।騥   ⥫⢠,  䠬      । . !

< ᯮ짮  묨   35 ⮢      ࠧ 100000 ஢,- ᪠뢠 ⨢ .-  "ᢥ⨫"   ࠫ ।  㯪 ⮬, ᮭ ।, 뢠 ᪨ , 㯠 ண ८, ,  孨, , >.

᪮   뫨    ⨢    ᯮ짮   樠쭮 客,  ⮬᪨ ।﫨    ,   ᠬ  ந 㣮  -  ਤ.  ᪮   稢, ࠤ訥  ᮮ騫 Equifax  㣨 । ,  ⨢ , 訩 ࠭  । ९, ⠫ ⥯ .

  ਨ  ࠦ 筮 稭  ࠦ । ⮢  ᪨ 믨᮪.  稭     ᬥ ,  १ ᮢ 祫  ࠢ﫠  襭 .  ⮬  ⠢  㬥⠫쭮 ᫥!   1997   Seattle Times ᪠뢠  ᢮ ࠭  ⮬,   ⥫ ⫠  ⭮⥩ 砫 祭 ࠭  ⥫ . 訩 ।⠢ 㤭 ࠤ⠭樨,  ந  ,  ᮮ頫,  祪 㤥 ᫠  , ᫨ ⢥⨢訩 ᮮ ᢮  樠쭮 客.
 竨   ⥫  ᮮ騫  ࠤ⠭   ,   ᫥ ᮮ騫 襬   ଠ.  筮 쭨⢠ 墠⨫   㯭 ஢஢ - America Online,   ᯮᮡ 襭⢠  稫 ᢮  - <phishing>.[p6]

 ᫮ ,       襭 ஡ - ⨯ ப,  ஬   㣨  <ࠦ 筮>.     ஢ ⮢    室 , 騬 ⢮  ᥬ  ⮢ 騪  뢠饩 ⭮,   諥 ᤥ  訬 .    ।   .   ਮ ⢠ ࠪ᪨ 襭    ।    ।.    ᠬ ⮪ ᫥⢨ ࠦ 筮 砥  ⮬,        ࠡ:  ࠡ⮤⥫ ஬ ४⥫ ᥬ   ।  ⥭⮢  ࠡ祥 .

ࠦ 筮 ⠫  - ⨪ ,  । .   ﭭ 祭 ਢ祭  ⮢   뢠   䨪樨 筮 ⥫  ଫ  ।⢮   ⥫䮭 . ᭮ ⨪   砥  ⮬,  ᫨   - ,  ,  ⥫䮭,  樠쭮 客   䠬 ,  ⮣ 筮  䨪樨   ⮩ 筮.  ᫥ ⮣    ᤥ 㯪  稢, ࠩ 뢠  祫.

ᮬ, 㧭 - , ,  ⥫䮭,  樠쭮 客   䠬  ⭮⥫쭮 ᫮. ।  ।⠢  ଠ ᢮ ⠬, ᪮ 㦡  㬥७    ଠ 㯭 १ ୥,   ᠬ   ᬮ⥫쭮 ।⠢  ଠ  ⥫䮭 祫,  ४ 㤭   , ᪠饩 । .

ࠦ 筮   ਭ樯쭮  㯫.  ⢮ ਩ -  ᪠  ୮,  稭 砫 , 童    , ।⠢ - 㣨. ⫨稥 襣 ६  ⮬,  ६ ௮権  । 뭮      । ஧ ࠦ 筮   ९樨  襣 . ᪮ । ।     ⥫䮭 -    ୠ ணࠬ  稢 㤭 㦡  ࠡ  ⠬, 騩 ண  ।ᠭ 業,- 饬  ᫮ 㤥 㡥 ,     - ᠬ.

  -   ।⠢ ᥡ ⠡ ࠦ 筮 ᥣ - 業   100  400 砥  ,- ᭮ :  ⢮ 㢥稢.   㯭   ࣭ ६ 祭,   㣮 .  ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ॣ㦥,   ⪠뢠 ࠤ訬  㦤 㣮  ⨢ 襭.  ந室 ⮬,   ⠥  ⮩ 樨 ࠤ訬 , 뤠訥 ।,   ,  筮 뫠 ࠤ.  ⮬      室,   ᯨ ⪨  ࠡ .

 楫  孨᪨ ,    ᭨ ⢮ ⠪ த 㯫.   ⠪     ॡ 筮   ଫ ।⭮   饭   ⮣䨨 .  ᮧ  쥧  襭, ⠪  襭, ⢥,  , ⮡  ஢.     ᮣ  ⨬, ᪮  १ ᭨ 䥪⨢ :  饭 䨪樨  뫪 窨   ਤ 뢠  .

, 梥 ஢⢠ 筮 ⠫  ⮬,   ।   ॡ 뢠 ।⢠  ᯥ祭 ⭮ ஢ ᭮ 楤 뤠 ।,   饥 ६  祭. ,    뫠 ।⥫쭮    祭 । , ᮧ    襭⢠.   ந室, ।   ଠ  ।⭮    த ࠡ ,   ⠥  ࠧ⮣ ,  ,   १ ࠦ 筮 ਠ .   ।⢮ ᭨ ⢠ 襭   ॡ  , ᮧ襩 , ਭ ⨥  樨  ᫥⢨.   ᤥ ⥬    , 騥 㦥 ஬ ଠ  । , ⠪   ⤥ ࠦ 뢠   ᮮ饭  . ஧ ࣭  ⠢ ।⠢騥 । ࣠樨 ⥫쭥 ⭮  䨪樨 筮 騪  ᭨ ⥬ ᠬ ⢮ ࠦ 筮.




  饥,   ப 諮


᫥ ਤ  ९   ப, 稭  ⪠  ᮧ 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業  ᮧ  ࠧ襬 㬥  ᮬ ⥬ 樮쭮 ⠡, 饩  , ନ 㯠   .

, ᠬ  ப ⠫ ᮧ ⮣,  ਭ  砫  襭  ਢ   騬 ᫥⢨. ࠡ⠭  1932  ⥬ ஢ 樠쭮 客 ⠫     ஫   ⢠  ᫥騥 60 . ᨬ ⮣   ⭮  , SSN - । ⥭.  ࠭ 㦥   ⪠   ᯮ짮.[26]

 - 짮⥫ ⥬ ஢ 樠쭮 客

1943 ࠫ ⢠ ᯮ SSN ⮫쪮  ᢮ 㦠

1961   ࠦ᪮ 㦡 ᯮ SSIM  䨪樨 㦠

1962  ࠢ ᯮ SSN  䨪樨 ⥫騪

1967 ⢮ ஭ ᯮ SSN  䨪樨 㦠

1972  砫 ᢠ SSN ᥬ 쭮 ꥧ騬  ࠭ ࠭栬   饬 㤠⢥ ᨤ

1975 ணࠬ  ᥬ  쬨 [Aid for Families with Dependent Children] 稭 ᯮ짮 SSN   䨪樨

1976 ⤥  ᯮ SSN    ⢮⥫ ⥦,  ⠪  ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७

1977 ணࠬ த⢥ ⠫ [Food Stamp Program] ᯮ SSN  । 童 ᥬ

1981 ணࠬ 誮 ࠪ [School Lunch Program] ᯮ SSN  ।  童 ᥬ

1981 㦡 ਧ뢠  ନ [Selective Service System] ᯮ SSN   ਧ뢭

1982 ࠫ쭠 ணࠬ ।⮢ [Federal loan program] ᯮ SSN   騪

1983  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  ⨨  ⮢ ( 室   業)
1984 ⤥ ⠬ ࠧ襭 ᯮ짮 SSN  ணࠬ  ᥬ  쬨, ணࠬ dicaid,[p7]  믫 ᮡ  ࠡ,  ணࠬ த⢥ ⠫  㣨 㤠⢥ ணࠬ, ⢫塞  , ⢥ত ࠧ I, X, XIV  XVI <  樠쭮 客>

1986 SSN   ᯮ짮  ⢥ত  㤮ன⢠

1986 稥 SSN ⠫ 易⥫  䨪樨 ⥫騪  栬       

1986  ࠭ᯮ ⠭ ᯮ짮 SSN  뤠 業  ᪨ ⮯ॢ

1988  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  䨪樨 ⥫騪  栬        (ॡ 㯨  ᨫ  1990 )

1988  ⠫ ᯮ짮 SSN த⥫  뤠 ᢨ⥫⢠  ஦

1988   ⠭樨 ५ ஢ ⠫ ᯮ짮 SSN  䨪樨 ஢

1988  SSN ⠫ 易⥫    ᮡ  ᮮ⢥⢨  ࠧ II <  樠쭮 客>

1989  樮 ⥬  ।⮢ 㤥⮢ [National Student Loan Data System] ⠪ ⠫   SSN

1990  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  䨪樨 ⥫騪  栬       (ॡ 㯨  ᨫ  1991 )

1990  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  ⢫  믫 ⢠   ࠭

1990  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  㦠 த⮢  ஧ , ந  ⮢஢  த⢥ ⠫

1994 SSN ⠫ ᯮ짮  롮 玲

1994 ⢮ 㤠 ⢥न SSN  ⢥ 䨪樮    祭 믫

1994  SSN ⠫ 易⥫  䨪樨 ⥫騪  栬 ᨬ   (ॡ 㯨  ᨫ  1996 )

1996 SSN ⠫ 易⥫  㪠  ᮨ᪠  ᨮ 業,    㯫  ࠪ. SSN  㪠뢠    ࠧ, 믫 ⮢, ।  ⢥ত ᪨ ࠢ, 室    ଫ ᢨ⥫⢠  ᬥ

1996 ࠫ ப ⢥न ॡ ᥬ ࠦ ࠭ ᮮ ᢮ SSN  祭    㦡 樨  ࠫ樨 [Immigration and Naturalization Service]

1996 SSN    ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७

1997


㣮  ப 砥  ⮬,  㯭 ࣠樨, ᮢ騥 孨᪨ 訡, ।    -     ⮢.  祭   룮 ।, ᥣ  ᮮ騢 ᢮ SSN, 祬    襭.    뢠,  ஡ 室 ࠧ 饬  SSN, ஬  । ⥭  믫祭 ।.   祬  祭,    業 ⠢, । ᢮   ⠬.

  ப -  ᪠  ⠫. 뢮 ᢥ,   砥    ⥫,  ࠦ ⨭ ⨭.     ।⢠ ᮢ ଠ樨 ⠭ ਡ㭮  㦤 ᫮ ᮢ ⢨ ⢠  孮.

   ப ࠭ ,  ᢮ 뭮 ᥣ ࠢ,  ⪨ ࠢ⥫⢠ - ॣ㫨஢  ᮧ ஡.  <> ᮡ ࠭ । <஢ >,  ᬠਢ  ⢨ ࠢ⥫⢠  <娥>,   ⢨ ⭮  -  <訥>. ᬮ  ,   ୮ ਢ⭮,  ᥣ ୮ ⭮.  1960-  ।⠢ ᠬ ᥡ   ᮧ ⥬, 饬 ࠢ  ࠦ. ,   ᢮ ଠ樮 뭮,   ⮬ 뭪   ⮫쪮 ᬥ.   ᫥ ⥫⢠ ࠢ⥫⢠  ଥ ਭ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>  稫 ࠢ   ᢮ ।묨   ॡ 㤠   ⮢୮ ଠ樨. 筮, ⠭ ⨬  冷 㤠⢥ ॣ㫨஢ ᮢ ਢ⭮  蠥  ஡,   , 祬 祣.

 ﭭ ,   ᮯ⨢  ⪠ ॣ㫨஢   ਢ⭮, ⠪   娬᪠ ஬諥  ᢮ ६ ஫  ⪠ ⠭ ॣ㫨஢   ࠭ 㦠饩 ।. 祬   ⮬   㣮 砥 ।᪠뢠 ᪨ ᫥⢨  뫨. ᪨ ⠪   ⪮ ॣ㫨஢ ᯮ짮 㦠饩 । ⠢ 娬    ⥫쭮 (,  ᫥⢨,  ਡ쭮), ⠪  ਭ⨥  讣 ⢠   ॣ㫨஢ ᮢ ਢ⭮ ਢ  ⮬,  ᨫ ⢮ ଠ樨, ࠭  ௮⨢  㤠⢥  ,  ᤥ  ⥬  業묨, 㤮묨  ਡ묨. 祢,   ਢ⭮   ᢮ ।⠢     ⢠, ⠪   .  ᪮  ᬥ ᬮ  , 祬   ।,    ᮧ   .




 饥   


     㣮 ࠢ?   饥,  ஬ 孮    ஫  ࠭ 筮. ,    ᤥ, 㤥 ᤥ, 祬  祭 ᮪ 筮. ।⠢ ᠬ ᥡ,   ᪮॥ ᥣ  訡 諮   ᮧ ⥬,  砫쭮  ࠢ묨, 묨  ஫㥬묨.

 1965  ࠢ⥫⢮  ⮢ 﫮  ୮ ९: 蠫   ᮧ 쭮 ࠢ⥫⢥  .   ⠫ ⮣ ஥ ⠫ 㯭 ⢥,    .  樨஢  蠭, 饭 室饩  ஭ ஢ ஧ ਢ⭮, ࠢ⥫⢥  㫨஢ ਭ樯  ଠ樨,   ᯮ⥫쭮  뫠  ਭ   .

  ⨫ . 饭樮쭠     । 㯮ॡ  ।⭮ ਨ. ⥬  ⪨ ஫   ᯮ짮  ।⢠ ⠭  ⨫   訡,  ᥣ ࠧ஧ ⢮  .  ⮣,  ଠ樮 ⥬ 饣 짮 뫮    ⠩  ⢥ ᯮ짮 ଠ  楫 ⫨  ,    뫠 ᮡ࠭.

  ᭮ ⮨  ୮ ९.  ,   㦥 뫮  1960- , ᬠਢ   ।⢮ ࠭  䨭ᮢ, ࠧ⥫쭮  ।⭮ ଠ樨.   ண 孮᪮ 饣,  ஬   䨪஢  ᠬ ⨬ ᯥ 襩 . ᥬ ᢮ 稪   ਭ  뢠  ந室饥  .    ⫨  筮  㣮  祭 ᮪ 筮.  ࠧ ,  ࠢ⥫  室 ਭ   ॣ㫨஢ ᯮ짮  ଠ樮 孮.  ⨢ 砥  㥬    ଠ樮 ய, ன    㤠 .  ᮦ,  ⮬   㯮      襭  ।묨 ⠬, ࠢ୮ ᯮ짮    ࠦ 筮.

᭮ ஡   砥  ⮬,     ࠭஢ ४⭮ ࠭饩   ଠ樨.   ।  ⮩ ஡   ந  ⢮    ⥬ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  뫨 ⮩稢 ⨢ ⠪ 訡.      筮  .   ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠, 樮 㦡  ⨪ -  祭  ᪮ 孮᪮ 襭, ஥ ॣ㫨 ஡ 䨪樨 筮.  ᫥饩   㢨, 祬  室 ᯮᮡ.





3

᮫⭠ 䨪



訡   , ࠦ 筮, 쭠    㯫 ⠫ ࠭묨 ﬨ  襩 , ⮬  ⨪  ᢮   ⨦   孮 ᪮ 䨪樨. ஭  孮 ⢥ত,   ᯮ짮  ᮧ ० ᮫⭮ 䨪樨,  ஬  筮   㭨쭮 ஢    㭨 ਧ ᮡ⢥ ⥫.

᮫⭠ 䨪  ᪠ 楫 -   ⨦. ⢨⥫쭮,  襥 ᫮ 祭, ஢  ⨪ ᬠਢ 䨪 祫  ய᪨ ਧ   孨,    ஡. ᫨ ⮣ ॡ  ⢠,   㭨 ࠧ ॣ஢  ⥫  ⮢, ய,  , , ᥩ . ᫥ ⮣  ᬮ 祭  ஢ 筮  , 祡 ,  ࠡ   ண. ᮫⭠ 䨪     ᮮ⢥⢨  ᥩ, ࠦ 筮  筮,  묨  ﭭ ⠫  ᥤ .   ᬥ  ਤ ᮫⭠ 䨪,  ᬮ ந ⢮,  童 ண ࠭஢ ᬮ    ਢ  㤥  ⢥⢥   ᢮ ⢨.

᮫⭠ 䨪 - 祭 ᮡ⥫쭠 . ,  ᮦ, 筠. ⮡ , 祬,  室 ࠧ  ⪠ ᠬ 孮.




 䨪 ⥩


     ᠫ । ६  ।⠫  騭.    த ,  ⥬,   ॡ 㬥,  ⠫ ⢥ত,  ⠢訩 ॡ ਭ  .  室 뫮 ࠢ ࠧ ᯮ   饩 .

   蠥 ਢ쭮. ᫨ ⮫쪮 騭  﫨 殢묨 栬,   뫨 ࠧ  .    । ᫥  ࠧ殢 ஢ ॡ   騭.  ᪨ ᯥ⨧ ஢ ᥣ ॣ୮  ⠭ 殢⢠  襭   .

  ᯮ殮   뫮 ⨦ ᮢ६ .  ⮣  ਪ ਭ ᢮ .  ᪠, , ᫨ 騭  ᬮ ࠧ ᯮ ᠬ⥫쭮, ॡ 㤥 ࠧ   .  ,    ᪮॥ ᮣ  ࠢ, 祬  ᬥ ᢮ ॡ. ⮬,      騭 ய ⪠  ,  筮 ,  㣠 騭 .

  ⮫⨩  ᫥⥫    [Joro de Barros] 뢠 ᪮쪮 ᯮᮡ 䨪樨 쪨 ⥩.  㡫  1563   <稭  > [Decadas da Asia]   뢠,  ⠩᪨ ࣮ <ᯮ⨧஢> ⥩,  ⯥⪨    㯭   㬠  ୨.  뫨   - 㬠,  뫠  ࣮.[27] ᫥ ⠪ 䨪樨 ਧ ⥩ 㦥 뫮 ᫮ ९,  뫮 ᮡ   ६,   﫨 ।⮬ 㯫-த.

    ⠭  ⥬ ॣ樨  ஦  ࠨ. ॢ ࠨﭥ 㦥  ࣠  ୨, ⮬   뫮  室  ॠ樨 ⮣ ஥.  ॢ ࠨﭥ   㭨쭮 ⯥⪮ 楢: 奮 㦨   ᪮  ࠨ  ﭮ ,   । ⫨  ⯥⪨  楢. ।⥫쭮  ᯮ짮 ᢮ ⯥⮪   ᮭ쭮 .   ᮧ 饭樮쭮 ⥬ 䨪樨  諠      ਤ, ⠪  ஡ 䨪樨   﫠  饣 ६.
 ਬ஢ 訡筮 䨪樨    : <ਭ  騩> ઠ , ਨ  ,[p8]   ᯨ.  ਨ 諨      﫨 筮 ᠭ, ⮬  ⠪ த 訡 뫨 ।.   ஬諥 ॢ樨    뫮 ॠ쭮 㦤  ଠ쭮 ⥬ 筮 䨪樨.  ய 䠬  ᯮ짮   ।! 設⢮  ஦    ஦   ,     㣠,   㦠    祭.




ய᪨ ਧ


 ᮡ⨩ ன  XIX  ⠢ ࠢ⥫⢠ ᪠ 訥   䨪樨 ஦饣  ਨ  ࠭ ᥫ.   稭 ⠫ ࠧ⨥ 㯭 த,  ⥫     栬.  ஢  㣠 뫠  室,     . 㣮 稭 ⠫  ६饭,   ᮡ  ࠭⮢,  襩 . 祭 ᪮ ᥭ䮡 ⥫ ਢ  ਭ  ய   ⪨ 樮 , ਧ ᮪ ⮪ ࠭楢.  ,  ᢮ ।, ॡ ᮧ ⥬ 筮 䨪樨,  﫠   ⫨ ࠦ  ࠦ. 쥩 稭 ⠫  楯 ॠ樨 㯭, ।⠢  , ᮢ訢訬 ࠭ 㯫, ॠ஢     ࠢ. ⥬ 䨪樨 㦭 뫠   ⤥ 樤⮢  ᮢ訢 㯫 .

஡ 䨪樨 㦤 ਢ  ਦ᪮ ய 䮭 ⨫쮭 [Alphonse Bertillion] (1853-1914).   ஢ ଠ, 襣 , ᫨    㯭 뢠 ࠧ ?  ࠧ   ﭭ 䨪樨  㤭⢠  ᠬ 祫?

⨫쮭 ⨫, ,  ᫨ 祫  㣨 , ᬥ ,  ,    ⥫ ⠭ 묨.  ᮧ ⥬ ய᪮ ,     ਧ. ⥬ 뫠 祭 אַ,  :

 祫 ⮢뢠  㯫,   魨 ⨫쮭 ந  ७ , , 㯭  襩 ॢ. ஢ 稥 ࠬ, த ⥭, 㣨 ⫨⥫ ⥫ ਧ.  ଠ    ॢ ᨫ  ᯥ樠 ,  ⥬ ࠭  業ࠫ쭮 楩᪮ ⪥;

 ⮣ ⮡ ᯮ   , ⨫쮭 । ⥬ 樨  ਧ. 窨   ࠧࠬ   । 頫   㯯,  । ࠧ஬ -  ,   쪨 ࠧ஬ -  .    㯯 ࠧ   㯯  ᨬ   ।  ⮢. 쭥 ७樠 諠  ᥬ  । ⨫쮭 ਧ.  १ 稫 3x3x3x3x3x3=729 ࠧ 㯯;

 楩᪨ ⠢   । ঠ,    ᬮ 㯯   ਧ , , ᫨ 室 ,  ன ᮢ  묨 ঠ,  砫,  祫 㦥 ࣠ ,  﫮 ⠭,  ⠥  ঠ  㣨 .

⥬ ⨫쮭 ⠫ 宩  ࠧ⨨ ਬ⨪.    ⮢  ᠭ  1881   楩᪨      㣨 楩᪨  १ 㦥 ᮢ ਧ ᫥ ᬮ ⥪. ⨫쮭 ᮧ ⥬,  ஢ 祫  ,   ६  ࠭   ᤥ ⮫쪮 祫  襩 ⥫쭮 .

 祭   ⨫쮭 ࠡ⠫  襭 ᢮ ⥬   1879  ⨫ 95-࠭ , ।⠢  㭠த   ᯮ   .  祭 ᫥   ⨫쮭   ᮬ ॣ樨  祬 120  ।⠢⥫ 㯭   ਦ.

   ࠡ ⨫쮭  ਬ⨢묨  ⤠ ᨧ. (⨫쮭 ᮡ ᮢ  ࠧ 룠, ⠪   ࠭   ᤥ.)  ⥬ ࠡ⠫.  祭   ᫥  樠쭮 ਭ   1882  ਦ᪠   4564 祫,  樨 諥 ,     ய᪨ ७. ⥬ ⨫쮭   ࠭᪨  뭮  ⪨ ਣ 樤⠬. 㪢쭮 १ ᪮쪮  ஢ 㯭  ਦ ᭨. ⨫쮭   ⥬,  ଠ 竨  襥 ஢  ,  蠭  䨪樨  .

 1896  ⥬ ⨫쮭 뫠 ਭ  쬠  ᥬ 楩᪨ ࠢﬨ  ⮢.  祭 ᪮ ஭ ⥬ 㦨,   ਬ ய᪨ ७  ࠭稢 ⮫쪮 䨪樥 㯭.  ਪ᪮   ⨫쮭  . - [R. W. McClaughry], 砫쭨 ࠢ ᯮ   , ભ ᭮ 楫  ⥬ 筮 䨪樨: 䨪 ᥣ ᥫ. - ᮢ    ।⢮ ⢥ ஫:

 ᮮ⢥⢨  ⥮ਥ ⥬    ᥣ ⢠,  祫   ࣭ 筮 ᠭ   10  (  ᠭ  襩)   ᠭ  ⨦  ५.  ࠭   ᢮ ,  㤥 ࠭ ᠭ  ⥫. ய᪨ ७   ᯮ ஫  祭 ࠭,    䨣஢  客 , 뤠 ࠧ襭  㣨 㬥⮢, ॡ 䨪樨 筮.    ᪠ 祫  ࢮ 室,    , ⠪    ⢠,   ,  ᫨   ᢮ 譮  쬥 㣮 . 㯭 㤥 ᪮७, 롮 ⠭ 묨, 樮   믮 㪮᭨⥫쭮, ᫥ ࠧ㬥  㤥 訡 ⠭ ,    १砩 .[28]

  ਪ᪨ ⥫   室  ᪠ ⥬ 䨪樨,  㦨  ண ᯮ 樮 ⥫⢠, ᪫稫   ॡ⥫    ᯮ짮  䨪樨 ᫥ ᬥ. 筮,   ᮡࠥ ࠨ ⠫  襩  楢,[29]  ᭮  ⨫쮭 室 ࠦ  ᮢ६ ⥬ ᪮  -䨪樨,    ࣠   宦 祫      楫,     室.




㪠  ⯥⪠ 楢


 ୮ , 殢 , 뫨   ᮢ襭 㦠᭮ 㡨⢠   .   㯫 뫮 㦥 㤨 㡨⢠ - ஢ .   ६ 㤥 ࠧ⥫⢠    玲,   㤨 㯫 ⠫ ࠪ ⯥⪨ 楢, ਭ騥 㡨,    ᮢ  ⯥⪠ 楢 塞,  ਭ 㣮 祫, 室饬   㤠.   襫:  ।  ⮬ 祫!

   <䨫 ᮭ>, ந ઠ ,  㡫  1893   Century Magazine.

 ᮭ, 饭  玲, ⠫   ਪ楢      ⯥⪠ 楢:

 祫 ࠭ 묨   ,  롥  ,  䨧᪨ ਬ,         , 祬  襣 ᮬ.  ਬ , ⠪ ᪠,  ,  䨧᪨ ⮣䮬,   ⮣     ,  ,  ⠭,  襭 ⪮  ﭨ ६.[30]

  ⯥⪮ 楢    饬 ६. ।塞 樥   砩묨 ᠬ  ६ ࠧ , ⯥⪨ 楢  殮 ᥩ   ⠪ ,   ஦.  ਧ ⢨⥫쭮 㭨: ᫮  ਠ⮢ ⮫쪮 ,      뫮 砥 (   - ), ⮡   ࠧ    㭮  .

,   ᠬ  ⮢ 砥  ⮬,  ⯥⪨ 楢 㭨⮦.   㡥  ⮬ ᠬ⥫쭮,   砫  娬   ਭ .  ஢  ⮢   ᭮ ᫮⮩. १ ᪮쪮   ⨫,  ⯥⪨  楢 ⠫  , ᫮ ࠪ᪨ ࠢ .  㦥 㪢쭮 १  ᫥ 砭 ⮢ ⯥⪨ ⠭  ⮬  ,     祧.

稭 ⠪ ⮩ ஥  ⮬,  㭮   ନ 㡨묨 ᫮ﬨ ନ,  ⢥ ᯮᮡ  - ⯥⪨ 砥   㤠   祪      㣨 ⪮ ⥫.    த  뫠 ᯮ짮  1930-  ᪮쪨 ࠬ,      ਬ﫠.

ᬮ        㭨쭮 ⯥⪮ 楢,    XIX  祭  﫨    ᯮ짮 ⯥⪮ 楢  䨪樨.  1880    [Henry Faulds] (1843-1930) 㡫  筮 ୠ Nature .    ᪠뢠, , ᫥ ⮣   砩 ⠢  祬- ⯥⮪ ᢮ 楢,    諠 ,  㯭 ⮦ ⠢ ⯥⪨   㯫.   , 㦤 , ᫥ ঠ ॢ ࠢ  ⯥⪨ 楢  ⠢묨   㯫.

  ⯥⪮ 楢   㯫 뫠  ⮫쪮  ⮬,   㭨,    ⮬,      㯫.  ⫨稥  ⥬ ⨫쮭  室 䨪஢ ⯥⪨ 楢 ᥣ ᥫ, 筮  ࠢ 㦥 ⯥⪨  ⯥⪠ ॢ.

᪨ 稭    襫 [W. J. Hershel] ᫥ ⥭ 㡫樨   Nature ᠫ  ୠ,    孨 㦥   .  ᫨   ਬ ⯥⪮ 楢   䨪樨 㯭,  襫 ।  ப ᯮ짮 ⯥⪮ 楢  ⢥ ⥬ 楫 䨪樨  ⠭ 筮. (筮,    諮  ᨧ: 襫   ন 冷 ,     ࠧ    ⯥⪮ 楢.)    ⮣  -࠭᪮    [Tabor] ᮢ 砩 ⠢ ⯥⪮ ᮡ⢥ ᯠ窠 ୨ . ᫥ ਨ ᯥਬ⮢  । ᯮ짮 ⯥⪨ 楢  ।⢮ ॣ樨 ⠩᪨ ࠭⮢, 룫拉  設⢠ ⥫ -࠭᪮ ᮢ襭 . 宦  - ⠢ ⯥⪮ 楢  ஦  - 뫠 ।  樭  1885 .[31]




襭  䨪樨


 ⨫쮭,  襫 ,  孮 䨪樨  ᮢ६ ⢥  ᯮ짮   楫ﬨ.   ஭,  孮 ॡ ࠢ࠭⥫묨 ࣠.   ᢮ ᯮ殮 ॥ ⯥⪮ 楢, 筮 ࠢ   ⯥⪨,    㯫,  ⠭ ⠪ ࠧ,   ਭ.   ॥   ᯮ짮     楫, ਬ  ।饭 襭   㬥.

ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  ⠨  ᮧ ⠪ ॥,    1980-  ⠫  ⨥ ⮩  ⢮. ⢥ : 祬? ஭ 訬 ⯥⪮ 楢 ﭭ 砫  ⥫ ⭮襭 ⢥    ⨫᪮஢.  1943 ,  ᠬ ࠧ ன ஢ , 㢨 ᢥ  ஫줠  [Harold Cummins]  짠  [Charles Midlo] <⯥⪨ 楢,   㯭> [Finger Prints, Palms and Soles].  ᠫ:

祢,   㦥  ,   ⠭ 쥧 ࠦ ⨢ ⨫᪮஢. ⨢ ⮩  ⠫ ,    த ᬠਢ  楤  ᢮ த ,   뢠   樠樨  浪 ଫ 㯭  樨.  ,  㭨ᠫ쭠 ⥬ ॣ樨 ⯥⪮ 楢 㤥  筮  ॠ.  ࠦ  ᪫⥫쭮 - ࠢ쭮  ⮤, <᪮஬஢> ਬ  ਬ⨪  㢥७,  ॣ 易⥫쭮  ᭮ ᢮.[32]

祬  ⢮ ᠥ ᮢ ॣ樨? , ⮬,   : ⯥⪨ 楢   ࠭஢ ⢨ 訡,  ᠬ ॥   ᯮ짮   祭.  ᪮쪮 ਬ஢,  ⠢ 㬠:

䨪  ⯥⪠ 楢 ⢫ 쬨,   ᢮⢥ 訡;

- ⯥⪨ 楢     㯫    稭. ⢨ 㥬 ⯥⪮ ᮧ १㬯 ;

⯥⪨   砩  ।७ ९⠭  楩᪮ ਨ;

࠭  樨 䠩  ⯥⪠   ।७   楫  ;

ᯥ 祭   ⯥⪮   ९⠭  ᯥ樠쭮 .

   塞 孮 䨪樨, ⥬  ࠧ  襭⢠ 砥 ,   ।७ 襭⢠   ᬮ ᪫ .   ⮩ 稭 ⨫᪮஢   ࠭஢ 䨪,   ᯥ稢  ⭮     䠩.  䠩,    䨪.

     ⭠ ஭: ⨫᪮  ।⢮ ண 䨪樨   ᯮ짮 ९ᨢ묨  ⠫묨 ०. , 騥    ⠪ ⢠, ᯥ稢 ᢮   ⮬ ᫥   ⮬,   ⨢ 饣 浪   ஢  㤥 ﭭ 室  ஧ ࠢ   ,      㤥 㭨⮦. ய᪭ ⥬  ६ ⥨   ਪ  䨪樮 窨, 뤠 ⨭栬  㯨஢ ࠨ ,  ⨯묨 ਬࠬ ⠪ ⥬ 䨪樨. ᪨ ० 㦤  ⥬ 筮 䨪樨: ᫨ ࣭   ⮣ 祫,  㢥 ᫮ ⨢ ० , , ⭮,  ,     ⢥⢥ ⨭ .

     ।ਭ ⪨ ᮧ ⠫쭮 ⥬  ॣ樨 ⯥⪮ 楢.  ⮣   ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ 䨪஢ ⯥⪨ 楢 ⮫쪮  ⮢    । ᨩ.  ଠ ࠭  ⠪ 뢠 <⨯楢 > [ten-print card] -   ⯥   .  ஢ ᯥ⠬  ࠭  ᯥ樠 騪.  楩᪨ ࠢ ᮧ    :   쭮 ᯮ짮,  뫠  .

  XX  ६  ᥮饬 ⨫᪮஢ ⠫ ᫠. 稭 ⮣   ஥  ਭ樯쭮 ⨢稨,    ஥ 쭮 䨪樨: 祬   ⯥⪮, ⥬ ᫮ ஢ -    ⯥⪠.

 1987    ࠭ 23  ⨫᪮᪨   ⯥⪠ 㯭,    ⮫쪮  ୨   뫮 7,5 .[33]  ⢨⥫쭮 ⠪ ꥬ ଠ樨 ਢ  ⮬,  ⥬ ⠫  ᯮ짮   ⢥ত 䨪樨:  , ᫥⥫    ⨫᪮   ࠢ ⯥⪨.  ࠪ⨪      ⯥⪮ 楢 ।  祫, ஬  ਭ.  ⯥⪮ ᫠ ⮫쪮,    ⠫  ᯮ짮  楫, ࠤ ன  ᮧ!  । 1980-   ᫥⥫  -࠭᪮ ⠫,  ᫨  㤥 ࠡ  ᥬ ᮢ    室,    33 , ⮡  ᬮ த ⨫᪮ ⥪,  ன ࠭ 300  .[34]




⮬⨧஢ ⥬ 䨪樨 ⯥⪮ 楢


, ᬮ  , ⨫᪮᪨ ⮤   ᯮ.  ⠫   ⮬ ᫥   ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ 䨪樨 ⯥⪮ 楢, ⭮ ⠪  AFIS [Automated Fingerprint Identification System].  1980-   ⥬   ஫   ⨫᪮. ⥬ ᮢ⨫  ᥡ ⭮⥫쭮 ᫮  䨪  ᯥ樠     ᪠ ᮮ⢥⢨  ࠦ ⯥⪮ 楢,  ⠪ ᯮ짮   ࠫ묨 ᫥ﬨ  ⨦ 襫 १⮢  ᫥⢥ 㪥.

 ᫨ ⯥⪨ ᮢᥬ  ⠪,  .   ᬠਢ ࠦ  ⠭ , ⥫  ਢ,  ८ࠧ   ⠡ 㬥 ஢.
 , 뢠 <ﬨ>,[p9] 뢠 窨 ࠦ,  १  稭, 稢  ࠧ.    ᢮ न  ᪮ (, )  ࠢ.

筮 ⯥⮪  뢠 90   ﬨ, ⠭  㭨쭮. 楤 ᪠  AFIS 砥  ࠢ  ⨩   楢,  ⠢  900 祪,  ᥬ ࠭묨    ﬨ.   ⢫ ᯥ樠஢ ஬, 騬  <ࠢ⥫>.  1987  ᪮ ࠡ 筮 ࠢ⥫ 室  ।  500  600 ⯥⪮  ᥪ㭤.   ࠡ  ⪨ ࠧ ॥,   , ᮤঠ  ᥩ, ᬠਢ ਡ⥫쭮  30 .  ᪮७    ⢮ ⥫ ࠢ⥫.  ࠫ쭮,   ᢮   ,  ன⢠ 믮   15 . ६ ⥬  ꥤ     ࠢ⥫,  ᮪頥 । ६ ᪠  ᪮쪨 .

AFIS  樨  ᢥ  ⯥⪨  ᥩ  . ⥬ ⠪     ࠣ ⯥⪠, 㦥   㯫. ਢ  뢮   ⢠ 樨 1987  墠 㤨⥫ ⨦  孮:

 ⯥⪠    AFIS 楩᪮ ࠢ -࠭᪮ ⮨  ᮢ 筮 ࠡ  祭 쬨 . ⯥⮪ ਭ 㡨 襩 㧭 櫠३ ६ ன ஢  ਠ  [Miriam Slamovich]. 騭 뫠 㡨 ५  㯮  ᢮   1978 . 㯭 ⠢   㯫 ⪨ ⯥⮪ , ,  ⢨  ॢ  㣨 㫨, 蠭  㯭 ⥬ ࠤ樮 筮 ᢥન ⯥⪠     ⮦. ᬮ  , 楩᪨  ४頫 ᫥,    1985  ⥬ AFIS 뫠 ७,  諠 㦭 ⯥⮪   .      ࠦ    .[35]

 1988   ⢮  室襩  ⮭ ७樨  AFIS,    ⥪⨢  ᮬ [Ken Moses]  楩᪮ ࠢ -࠭᪮.  ᪠ ,   1984 ,    楩᪮ ࠢ 뫠 ७ ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ ᯮ ⯥⪮ 楢, ᫮ ࠦ  த ᭨  26%.[36]  ⮬  ᭥:  40% 砥 ࠦ   㯫  ⯥⪨ 楢, 28%   㤠 ஢,  ⥫⢮ ਭ ⯥⪮ 楢  93% 砥 ਢ  ⥫쭮 ਣ.   1985   -࠭᪮  ⥬ AFIS 뫠    900 㯭.

AFIS  樨 -࠭᪮ ᤥ   ᫨ ࠭ :  ६   ᯥ譮  ᫥ ,  㯫. 稭    㡨⢥  樨 㤠  816  㯫,  ⮬ ᫥ 52 㡨⢠. ( ।騩  ᥣ 58 㯫 뫮     ⠢ 㯭 ⯥⪮ 楢.)

 -࠭᪮ ⠫ ࠭.  ୨  <筮 ⠫> [Night Stalker] ⠪ 뫮    AFIS  䨪樨 ⠢  㣭 設 ⯥⪮ 楢.  祭 ᪮쪨 楢 ᫥ ७ AFIS  ⨬,  ਫ, 뫮 ஢ 525 祫,    諥 .  ᯥ AFIS  ⮫쪮 襫騬,  ⢮ 樨 ᠫ  ᢮ :

<AFIS   襭 䥪⨢ ࠡ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ⠪  ﭨ,  砫 ப ᯮ짮 ஢  㣮-㠫쭮 ࠪ⨪  1960- >.[37]

ᯥ譮 ७ AFIS ਢ  ⮬,   饭     祢 ᮢ,     筮  孮. 筮  ந諮 - ⮣,  㭨쭮 ⯥⪮ 楢 㦥  뫠 ९  ਪ᪮ ⥫⢥. 㣮 稭 ⠫  䠪,   砥 ᮬ 㦥 AFIS ᮢ ⯥⪮   ஢७ 祫 㠫쭮. ᪮   AFIS ந ⥬ ᪠஢ ⨫᪮᪨ , 㦥   ᯮ殮 樨, ⥬ 뫠 ७ ᥬ⭮    ⢥.   ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  ७ ⥬ 뫨 祭 ࠧ  ࠣ묨 ᠬ: । ᤨ樨 ⥬ AFIS, ᯮ㥬 த, ⠬  ࠫ ࠢ⥫⢮; ᯥ祭 ᮢ⨬ ଠ⮢ ࠭  ⥬ AFIS ࠧ ந⥫ , 筮, ﭭ    ஢ ⯥⪮.




⮬⨧஢ ⥬ 䨪樨 ⯥⪮ 楢



 ନ ᯮ  ᬮ १⮢ ୮ ᪠   , ᮤঠ饩 ஢ ࠦ ⯥⪮ 楢. ⥬ AFIS  ࠦ  ந ᯨ᮪ ࠪ᪨ 祪 - 祪,   稭, 稢  ࠧ १  . 祭  १  㦨  쭥襬 箬 ᪠   .  ⢫ 祭   祭 筮: ॡ ᥣ     ᬮ  , ᮤঠ饩  ࠦ,  宦 ᮢ饣  ࠧ殬 ⯥⪠.  ⥬ ࠧࠡ⠭ ᯥ樠騬  ᯮ ⯥⪮ ࠧ  NEC Technologies,  ᮧ ᢮ ᪮ ਫ  30    த  饥   ⮬ 뭪.  孮 ᪮ 䨪樨  NEC ᯮ  祬  300 ࠧ ਫ  14 ࠭.  ᯥ樠஢ ⥬  ᯮ짮  ࠢ࠭,  業஢, 樠쭮 ᯥ祭   ᭮.  த   ⨢ ࠧ稢  ⥬, ६ ந   , ᮤঠ ⯥⪨ 楢  ࠦ, ᨬ  ⮣, ਢ   㣮 ⢥⢥  .   ,  ᫮ ஭,    ⢥    ⨨ 㯫, ⠪   䨪樨 㬥   . [⮣  ।⠢ ମ NEC Technologies]


 ࠧ 訬 ᫮ ⨢稩 諮 ⮫  ७ ⥬ 䨪樨   .  孮   ᮢᥬ ४⭮ 뢠 <⨫᪮ > [DNA fingerprinting].




䨪  


ਡ㪫 ᫮,  ⭠   ,- 㫠,  ६ ࠧ  ꥤ .    ᫥⢥ ਧ । ᫥騬 , 室⢮  ࠪ୮  ᥬ  ,  - 㠫쭮 饥   権.  ⮬  ࠧ稥     祫 㭨. 室⢮  뢠    த⥫ﬨ,   㭨쭮   ⫨묨  .

䨪   ᭮   楯祪     筮.     ᭮ ਬ:

⠭ 殢⢠;

। ਭ ஢  ᥬ , ⠢   㯫;

䨪 祫᪨ ⠭.

᪮  ᫥ ਧ த⥫ ஢,  ⭮⥫쭮  ᯮ짮  । 殢⢠: ,  室,-  ࠧ 讣 ⢠ ⮪,   ॡ,   । .  ᫥       ⠫ ਬ   㤥 .  ᯥ⨧ 쭠  砥,    㯫  㦥 ⯥⪮ 楢, ᪮   ஢ 筮 讣 ⢠ ᪮ ਠ:  ஢, , ᥬ , ᪠  窨 .  ᪠    [Michael Baird]  ਨ Lifecodes Lab: <᫨  襩 㡠誥 㦨 誮 ஢, ᮢ饥  ஢ , ᮪ ⭮,  㡨 - [38]>.

    ਬ  䨪樨 祫᪨ ⠭. ᪮ 㫠  १砩 ⠡쭠, 室   ਠ   祭  ⠭ १    १   ᫥ ᬥ 祫. 室   ᮮࠦ ਪ᪨    ᯥ樠   ଠ    㦠饣.  ⠬    ਤ ஭ ⠭ ⭮ ᮫.  ६ ࠪ ᯮ஢, ﭭ     , ⥯ . ࠧ ᫥  ⮩ 孮 祭,   ⭨ ࠦ᪨ ᢮ ᪠뢠 ᮬ ⭮⥫쭮  筮 ᭮  䥪⨢.    ᥬ⭮ ਧ ᮫⭮ ,   ६  ⢥ ਧ ⮩ 筮.




⠭ 㪨:    1986-1996 


᭮      祫.      ᥡ 㭨 ᪨ , 騩   祬  म ᭮ 㪫 ᫮:  (), 㠭 (G), ⮧ ()  ⨬ ().  ⪠ 祫᪮ ⥫ ᮤন  ᪮  ⮣ 祫, 饣 㭨   ⥫ .  ⫨稥  ⯥⪮ 楢, ᪨    ⥬ 樨  १ .

ᬮ    孮 䨪樨 ,    㭤⠫ ஡. ࢠ ஡ 砥  ⮬, ,  ⫨稥  ⯥⪮ 楢,       㭨쭮: 殢   ।       ஬ᮬ.  ⠪ 殢 筮 :  ୮ ਪ  ।  83,4 த 室  砩   ᢥ 殢,  ⮬ 28,2%   , ⠪  ࠧ   ⪨.  ࠧ, ਡ⥫쭮 0,338% ᥫ  殢묨 栬, ..  祫  . ਭ⨥   ⢥ ।⢠ 䨪樨  ⠡ ࠭  ਢ  ⮬,    窨 ७ 㤥 ⢮  ᪨ .
 ஡ ⥬ 䨪樨    砥   ᯮ짮  祫, 饣   म ᭮:  ᫨誮 . ஬ ⮣, ᯮ짮  䨪樨 楫    ᫠,    ⤥쭮   ᮢ   99%.  ⮣  ᯥ⨧  ᯮ  ⪮ ⮩ , ,   ᥬ,  ᯮ  - 㭪権,   뢠 <묨 ⪠>[p10] . ᪮  ࠣ     ᯥ祭 ⮪  ࣠  楫,     ந室  砩 ,  樨.  ந⢥ ᯥ⨧  筮 ।⠢ ࠧ殢 ।  ⥬ ࠢ  ⪮.

᫨ ⪨  ᮢ, 祭 ᯥ⨧ 筮: ࠧ ਭ ࠧ .  ᫨ 㦥 ᮢ? ᫨ ᬠਢ ⪨   ࠧ ,   ࠢ     ਭ   祫, ⠪  砩 ᮢ ᪨ 楯祪 ࠧ .    ᯮᮡ 㧭  猪. 筮, 筠 ᯥ⨧  ࠧ砥 ᥣ    ࠧ ஢ , ⠪ ࠧ, ⭮ 砩 ᮢ -  蠭  . ⮡ - ஢  筮, 䨪樮 ਨ ஢   4-5 ⮢    १. ᫨  ⮢ ᯮ ࠧ ⪨   ᫨  ⪨  <஢>  ᥬ⢠ ⢥ ࠧ,  ਬ ਨ ⮢ ᭨ 蠭 砩 ᮢ              500 .    ࠢ    ᪫  砩 ᮢ  ୮ 䨪樨. <  -   ࠢ ⯥⪮ 楢,-     [David Bing], -४ 樠樨  䨪樨 祫 [Human Identification Trade Association].-      㢥७  . ⮢ ,  ᭮   ᪠,   祫 㭨,  >.[39]

 ஡, ୠ  ⥬ 䨪樨   , 砥  ⮬,   ஢  ॡ ୮ 㤮  ஢ ᯥ樠. 玲  <䨫 ᮭ>   㠫쭮 ࠢ ⯥⪨, 㦥  㤨 㯫,  ⯥⪠ ॢ. , ᪮   ॡ ਢ祭 ஭ ᯥ⮢,  ᥣ    ᨮ ࠧᨩ.  筮,  ᫥ ᪫  ⮣,  ࠧ ஢  ᥬ    㯫     ࠭ᯮ஢,  砩, ⠪  諥. (  , ।  ⢥ ⥫⢠   . . ᮭ [. J. Simpson]  1996 , 뫨 ⮢ ⠬ ᮢᥬ    ᮮࠦ,   ᭮ ,  ࠧ 뫨  楩᪨-⮬, ਢ訬 ᠤ 襣 ⡮  .)




䨪 


 䨪樮  뢠 ਬ १⮢    ᪫祭 ⢨ ॢ   㯫   ⢥ত ᮮ⢥⢨.  ⢫  ⮢ ᯮ짮 ࠧ   㯫  ࠧ ஢ ॢ.   ࠧ  ࠣ ࠧ筮 ࠧ ⥬  ࠡ⪨ . ࠣ     ࣠ ⢨ ᪮ ,  १ 祣 ந室  ஢  ࠧ. ࠣ ࠡ뢠 ⢮-થ஬, 騬 । ⪨ ஬ᮬ. ,  થ ঠ,  ୠ   . ᫨ ࠧ   ࠣ  ࠧ,    ॢ,  뢮   ᮢ. ਬ ।⠢ Cellmark Diagnostics,    ਩, ⢫饩 㤥 䨪 . [⮣  ।⠢ Cellmark Diagnostics, Inc., ଠ,  ਫ].

   襫  㤥 ࠪ⨪   1987 ,   ६    ⮢  筮 ⥯ ࠧࠫ  ⮩ 㪥, ⮡  ⠪ . ⢨ ।⠢﫮     玲    ⥮, ᬮ     뫠 ᪠ ᥣ   .  1991    ᯮ짮  ᫥  㣮 㯫.   諮   ஡.  1989   ᬮ७  <த ⨢ >[40]  ࢮ ⠭樨 ਭ  ⢥ ⥫⢠ १  , 㪮 ⥬,     饬 ਧ 祭묨,  樮  ⢥ ⥫⢠  稭 饭  ஭ ਨ  襭.   1989  客    ⢥ १     < ⨢ >[41]  稭  ஢ ஫ ⢠  ਨ  ⮣ 䠪,    ᬮ ।⠢  롮ન  ᥫ,  ᭮  ᭮뢠 ᪮ 祭.   ⮬   樠 樮   ਫ ⠭  ᬮ७  < ⨢ >[42] ਧ १ ᯥ⨧   ⢥ ⥫⢠, ⬥⨢  ⮬,  ਧ   <  易⥫   㣮 ᫥>.

 ᮧ ࠭ :  ⮫쪮  ⠫ ᯮ짮  ⢥ ⥫⢠ १  , ᫥   室   ᪮ - ⥫⢮ 筮 ⥫쭮 ᠬ ⮤  .   ⥩  ᫥ ⠨ 孮,    뫨 ᠭ 쬨  室騬   ᯥ ਩,  ਢ묨  ᫥  ⢥ ᯥ⮢   பன .   筮 ᮮ⢠   ᪠ ।⮥ ,  ,   ⭮襭  ⮩ 㪥, 뫨   ᮢ.

⮡   ᯮࠬ,  1989  樮 ᮢ  ᫥ [National Research Council, NRC] ᮧ   孮   ਬ⨪ [Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science],     祭 孮 䨪樨  ᭮ .
NRC 室  樮       ᠬ ⨦ ᫥⥫᪨ ࣠権 , ࠧ殬 ꥪ⨢  筮 .  ਧ ४⭮  筮 ⥮ਨ.  ॡ ⠭⨧  ⮢,  ⭮ ᯮ㥬 થ஢,  祣,  ᢮ ।, 뫠 室    ᪨ 묨 ᥫ.    ⨫  訡.  㫠 ᪨ ᯮ  ᯥ⠬-ࠪ⨪    㯯, 饩 ⨪,  ४ ᯮ짮  ᯥ⨧  ᪨ 室, 稢訩  <ਭ樯 ஬ ࠭祭>.  ᭮ ਭ樯  ⥬᪠ 㫠   ⭮ 訡筮 ᮢ,[p11]   뫠  ࢠ⨢,  ᯮ짮  ⮬ ६.

< ᮧ ਤ᪨ >,-    ⮫ [Mark Stolorow],   ਬ⨪  Cellmark Diagnostics.[43] ஡ 砫  ⮬,  ਤ᪨ ਭ樯 ਧ  ⥫  㤥, 뢠 <⠭ > [Frye standard], ॡ, ⮡ ᯮ㥬  ⮬ 筠 ⮤ 뫠 ⥫쭮 祭  饯ਭ⮩  筮 ᮮ⢥.  । NRC ਭ樯   饯ਭ,   ⥭ 童 ᮧ NRC .

 ५ 1993  ४   襭 [William Sessions] । NRC ஢ ⥫쭮 ᫥, ⮡ ࠭ ࠧ㬥. ᬮ     த ᬮ 祭   楤⮢,  室 뫠 祢.   ମ. NRC ᮧ   30  1993 ,    稭 ᢮ ࠡ  ᥭ 1994  - ।  䨭஢.       1996 .

 ,  NRC ⨫   ⥫  , ᮣᨥ 㦥 뫮 .   1995  ୠ Nature 㡫 ,  <ࠬ  䨪樨    >.[44] ⢥ত  ⠫  䠪,   뫠 ᠭ  ᮠ⢥ ᠬ묨 묨 ⨢  ⮬ ᯮ - ਪ ஬ [Eric S. Lander]  ᮬ 㫨 [Bruce Budowle].  ⮩  , 祭-⨪   祭    奤 [Whitehead Institute Center for Genome Research],  㫨, 㪮⥫ 祡-᫥⥫᪮ ਬ᪮ 業  [FBI's Forensic Science Research and Training Center], ᮣᨫ,  筠 ⥮   ᭮.  ᫮,  ਨ ਬ    饭 訡,     ⠪   ᯮᮡ,   㣨 孮 䨪樨.




  ᥣ


祭 ᫮ ८業 祭 䨪樨  .   ⮤ ७ ࠧ  楤 । 殢⢠  祭 ⮢. <,   楤 ந室 ࠭?- ᨫ    .-  ।⠢﫨   訢, 宦    >.

  ⠪  ,    ,    ஢묨 த⢥,   筮,  ⮬    쭥襥 ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨  㤥. CBR Laboratories ஢ ᪮쪮 ⠪ ⮢  ⠭ த⢠, ᪠뢠 ,  諮 童 ᮢ ४஢ ⮩ ਨ.  ஢  室 ࠧ    祫,  ⠭,    ஢묨 த⢥,  ⠪  ᨬ쭮 ⢠ த⢥   ஭. ⮨  ($200  祫)  ᫨誮 ᮪ 業  襢 ᯮ⢨, ஥  .    ஢  ⠩  祫    ᮣ: ࠧ      窠 ⪠,  祫 짮. < ,     ,    ᤥ >,-  .  ⮣  ॡ 祭 㤠, ⠪      ᫥ 㯫, 易  ⨬ ࠧ栬.    ⢥  祭  .    ⢥    , ᫨  ।⠢ , , , 樠 ࠡ⭨   ⥪⨢.

 筮 ⥫     ᯮ  ᬮ , ।   ⮩ 孮. 騩  ਤ᪮ 誮 म 㭨 訢 ஥ <> [The Innocence Project at Yeshiva University's Cardozo School of Law] ᯥ樠  ᯮ짮  ⢥ ⥫⢠    樠樨 ᬮ   ࠢ ࠢ 㦤.   樮쭮  樨  1996  ᪠뢠  28 楤,  ࠢ 㦤 祫 ᢮ ᫥ ⢥ত      .  । 㦤 ஢  祭  ᥬ .[45]   ᯮ짮 ⠪  ᮥ 饭  ६ <吝 >  ࣥ⨭ ⥩   誠, 誠  㣨 童 ᥬ.

   ᫥ ᬥ.    ठ [Sam Sheppard]            ,   1954   㡨⢥ , ਫ  [Marilyn Sheppard].   ஢  쬥     ࠢ ᫥ ᬮ   1966 ,     ⠫ ᮬ   .      [Sam Reese Sheppard]  ࠧ襭  㬠 ⥫ , ⮡ ஢ ࠢ⥫     ࠧ栬 ஢  ⥫ ⥩, 㦥   㯫.[46]  ⢥न,  㦥   㯫 ஢ ਭ     ,  㣮 祫.




  


஬ 25  1991  祫  ᪥       ਭ䨫,  , ५ 㦠, ᨫ , ᫥ 祣 ५    ⠢ 㬨. ⥫쭮,  騭 릨. ⢨ 﫮   ᥬ , ⠢ 㯭,  ந ࠢ⥫   䨪樨 .  ந  ୮  , ᮤঠ饩 ଠ  ,  ᮢ 㦥  뫮. ᪮ 騭    㯭 㠫쭮,  﫠  ,  ᫥⢨ 諮  㯨.

 ५  ਭ䨫  ᫥ 㣮 㯫 﫠   ࠧ  稭, 塞  ᨫ ᥬ⨫⭥ 窨,   ଠ  .   ࠧ  㦨 ᮢ   ࠧ栬  ᪮ .  筮  玲 ਧ 塞    [Arthur Dale Hickey]   㡨⢥ ࢮ ⥯  襭  㡨⢮, 祭묨 ᥪ㠫 ᨫ  থ  .   ਣ७  ᬥ⭮ .

  , 67% ᨫ쭨 ᮢ   , 祬  । 㦨 2,8 ,  5,2   㦨. 孮 䨪樨     設⢮  砥.  裡  ⨬ ࠢ⥫⢮   ⥫쭮 浪 易   ॣ஢ ଠ    㦤   㯫.  ⥫  ⮢  ࠭稫  ᨫ쭨.     㦤  㯫, 易  ᨫ,  ᤠ ਠ  䨪樨 .  㣨  楤 <᪮ ⨫᪮஢> ࣠  㦤,   ᨫ⢥ 㯫.       ࠭ ᪠ ଠ   , ᥣ    ᮢ襭 㯫.

<᪨ ⯥⪨> ࠭    , 뢠 <஢ ⥬ 樨 > [Combined DNA Index System, CODIS].   ⢨  1994   ᮮ⢥⢨  <  䨪樨 > [DNA Identification Act] ⥬ ।⠢ ᮡ  , ᯮ㥬  祭 䨫   ᪠ ᮢ 㯮祭묨 ࣠  ஢: ⭮, ஢   䥤ࠫ쭮.  ਠ ணࠬ 㭪樮஢  1991 .

䨫  ᮧ    㫨, ⠢   㯫, ⠪    ࠧ殢,   㦤.   CODIS   䨫,  ⮬᪨ ஢  ᮢ  㦥 騬   䨫ﬨ, ⭮騬   㯫.  砥 㦥 ᮢ  , ⨢  , ⮬᪨ 뫠 㢥  ஭ .

    ⠫ ஡. ⮬ 1997   CODIS ᮤঠ  125  䨫  㯭   20  䨫 , ⭮   㯫. ⠫ 400  ᠭ  㦤  ᢮ ।     ⥬.   1998  ᫮ ࠡ⠭ ᥩ  楫   ᫮  450 .[47]  ᨫ ᨣ  ࠧ 22,5  ஢  <᢮> ⮣ .

 ᠬ     ᮧ ⢮ ஭ .  ᮧ  ⢮ ॥  뫮  ⠭  㦠.  31  1995   ࠭ ࠧ殢 ᮤঠ 1,15  ࠧ殢.

 web-ᠩ ⢠ ஭   ᫥ ଠ  ࠭:

஢ 頥  ᯥ樠 ,  楢 ஭    樠쭮 客 㦠饣,  ஦  த .  ⭮ ஭  ࠧ ⯥⪨ 楢, -  , ⢥ত ࠢ쭮 ࠧ.   ࠧ栬 ஢ ᮤঠ  ࠭ ࠧ殢  ᯥ樠쭮 㬭 㯠  ⥬ -20C.     (᪮  孮 饪) ࠭  ய ᯨ  ⭮ ⥬.   ⠭  ୮ ન஢ ࠧ殢 ਭ ᯥ樠  ᭮.

宦,      㤥 ᯮ짮  ⮫쪮  䨪樨, ⠪  ⢮ ஭ ࠭   १ ⡮ ⤥ ,  楫 ⪨ ஢.  筮   ᮧ 㯭襥   ࠭ ⫨筮 ࠭ ᪮ ਠ, 祬   ࠧ ⢮  ஡ 樭᪮  㣮 ଠ樥.  ⢨ ६,   ࠧ,  ࠭⥫  ࣠ ﭭ   楫 祭 ࠧ殢   ᫥ , ,  ਬ ᫥.  ⭮,   ஥,  ⥯  楫 ࠭, ⠪    㣨 ஥ ᮧ 䥤ࠫ  .




ୠ 


ᬮ  ᢮ ᮪ 筮,  ⨫᪮,     室  䨪樨 筮  ᥤ . ਠ  ⯥⪠ 楢 ਥ:   祬 100   ஭  ᬮ  ᯮ짮 ⮩ 孮  樠権  㯭. 䨪   ⠪ ਥ, ᪮  䨪樨 ॡ ⥫쭮 ६ -    .  , ᫥ 100   ᯮ 㣮 ᯮᮡ ᪮ 䨪樨,  ⠪  訩,  ⯥⪨ 楢   .  ⮣.

  ࠭ ମ 䨪樨  饭 ⮣䨨  樠 㬥.    㭨ᠫ ᯮᮡ 䨪樨 筮  ᯮ.   ய᪨ ࠭ ᯮ  䨪樮 窮.    ⥫᪮ 㤮⮢७  ⮣䨥  ᠬ ࠭ ମ 䨪樨   ⭮, ⠪   㤠⢥ ᥪ.

 ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७    䠪஢. -,    㢥७,  㤮⮢७ 뤠 ᮮ⢥饬 . -, ᠬ  ᥡ 㤮⮢७    饭  , . . 饭 㤮⮢७  . (⮢७,   ,  ஢ 㯫, ⠪  㤮⮢७   ࠤ,   ᯮ짮 ⥬  襭᪨ 楫.)      ᯥ譮 ᯮ  ⮢ 㤮⮢७ ᪨ ਠ,  㤭  .   饬  믮   㭪 䨪樨 筮 ⥫.   ஡  ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७ﬨ   砥  ⮬,    ᪠ ᢮ 㤮⮢७,   祭 ࠧ  ଫ.     祭 ᫮ ⠭, ⢨⥫쭮  । 㤮⮢७ 饭   ⠭   .

३ ⥯  ਧ ⥬ 䨪樨.  ᮢ६ ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨, ⠪    ᬮ७  AFIS,    ⥩. ࢠ -  ன⢮, ஥ ந ७ - ࠬ 祫᪮ ⥫  ८ࠧ   ஢ .  -   , ࠭ १ ᪨ ७ ⥭,     .        ᢥ   ஡ : ᫨ 䠫訢 ᮪ ⨪ ⮢ ,   䠫訢   ࠢ⥫⢥   ࠢ 㤭.

 ᫥   뫮 ࠧࠡ⠭ ⢮ ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨.   - ᮧ   ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७  ⮣ﬨ.  ﭭ   ஢   ᫮ ⥬.  ਬ   .

㭮 ⪨ . ⪠ 宦  ᢮ 㠫쭮  ⯥⪨ 楢.      ⮩ ⥬ 뢠   㭨 㭮   祫.  1980-  뫨  ⥬, 騥 ⨭, ࠧ㥬   ﬨ . ,  ⫨稥  ⯥⪮ 楢, 㭮 ⪨ থ :  騭  ६ ६  ⢨ ମ     ࠧ뢠  , 騥 㭮. 饯ਧ,   ⥬ ਬ 騭,  室    ᮢ ࠦ ⪨,   ६, 祬  ६ , ,  ந諮  .




஢ ࠤ㦭 窨


   ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨 ᪠஢ ࠤ㦭 窨     ⠡.  㧮  ࠤ㦪 ନ   ஦  ⠥   殮 ᥩ  (஬ 砥 ࠢ  ࣨ᪮ ⥫⢠, 筮). ࠦ 㧮 ࠤ㦭 窨   祭  ᯮ짮  ᮪ ࠧ襭,   ⮫쪮 㭨쭮,  ⭮ ᮢ ᪨ ⥫ ࠤ㦪   ⠢  蠭  10^78. ( ࠢ: ᥫ  ⠢ ᥣ  10^10.)  殢   ࠧ騥 ࠤ㦭 窨.  ᫥    : ᪠஢ ࠤ㦪   祫,    ࠤ㦭 .   १⠬ ᪠஢  祫  ⮫쪮 ᫥ ᪠  ୮  . ᫨   뫠   ஢, ᪠஢ ࠤ㦭 窨   ࠢ쭮 䨪樨. [  ।⠢ IriScan, Inc.]


㭮 ࠤ㦭 窨. ᮡ  ⥬   ࠤ㦭 窨 뫨  1990- . 㦭 窠 ନ   ६ ஡ ࠧ, ⮬ ⠥   殮 ᥩ  祫.   ࠦ    ⠭⭮ ,   ண饣  㤮 ᪠,   砥  ⪮.   ஢  ⮬ ᥪ   IriScan,  孮 ᯮ  쬠,  ⮬᪨ ᮢ 設 (),   ⠫ ᯮ짮   ⠭ . British Telecom,  ⭥஬ ⮩ , ࠧࠡ⠫ ᮪᪮⭮ ᪠ ࠤ㦭 窨,    ࠦ ࠤ㦪 祫, ᨤ饣  設, 饩  ᪮ 90/.  ⠪ ᪠ 祭 ண,   ॡ ᯥ樠쭠 ⨪,  ᮪ ࠧ襭  ࠢ塞 ஬ ꥪ⨢  ࢮਢ.

, ᪮ 孮 ﭭ ࠧ,  業 ,  孮, ⭮, ᪮ ⠭  㯭.
 ઠ.  ઠ  ᮡ⢥筮      ᪨ ⥬  .  ࠦ    ஢  ࠢ  騬 ࠧ栬. ᫨  ⠢  ᯥ樠쭮 ஭ ,   ⠪ ஢ ᪮ ६饭   ᨫ .    ࠬ (ࠥ, ᪮  ᨫ )  ந  ,  祭 ᫮ .[p12]

⯥⪨    .  䨪樨  ⯥    ਨ  㭮 ᪫  ⭮⥫쭠  楢.  ⥬ ࠤ ⠡쭮  ࠢ   ⯥⪮ 楢, ⠪  塞 ࠬ   ६.  㣮 ஭,    ⭠ <ਬ쭮>. ⥬ 䨪樨  ਨ  ਬ﫠  䨪樨 ᯮᬥ  ⭨ ᪨   ⫠  1996 .

ࠪ⨪ . ⥬ ᮢ   ஢ 饣 ⥬ ࠢ நᨬ  ࠧ  ࠭ ᠭ묨.   ⥬ ᯮ       饣, .. ।,  , ⠪   ᯮ , .. ।,  뫮 ᪠.  ⫨稥  祫, ᮢ६    ஢ 饣  ᯮ  ᪠ ६,   㢥祭 ந⥫쭮  ᨫ   . ⭮,  -  ᬮ  祫    100%- 筮.      ⮣.   筮 ଠ樨  襭 ⮩ .

ᯮ . ⥬ ᯮ   ஢ 祫   㠫쭮 室⢠.  ᯥ祭 ࠡ ᮢ६ ⥬ 室, ⮡ ࠦ      ७  ,  䮭 ᮮ⢥騬 ࠧ ஫஢.  饬 ⠪ ⥬   ᯮ   ⮫, ⠪     祫 ( ,  ⮩  ⥯ 筮). ᪮ ⥬ ᯮ     ᥡ ஬饣 ,   뢠 ⢠ ᭮;  ⫨稥  ⥬ ᪠஢ ,  ⥬  蠭  묨  XXI ⮫⨨,   ਢ   १⠬. <,  室 뢠,  ⥬ ᯮ ,-  । ୠ Identity World ⨢ .-  ⥬  ⮫쪮 뫠 ⮢,     ⮢, ਧࠪ  楩᪨, ࠡ  >.[48]

ମࠬ . 䨪  ମࠬ  ᯮ ᮡ ᯮ 室 ।⢥   ஢ 㤮. ᫨ 譨      ᯮ짮 ᬥ⨪   ᪮,  ஢ ⥬  ᫮. ⮬ ⠥,  ମࠬ    ᯮᮡ 䨪樨, 祬 ⮥ 㠫쭮 ᯮ.

䨪  ᨫ  ᮡ 室.   ᮡ⢥   । ⥣ਨ ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨,  ᯥ樠  ⮩  ⠪  ਧ.   㧭 ᢮ 㣠 ,  ᫨    .     ᭮ 鸞 ࠬ஢,  ࠧ  ய樨, ᮡ 室  .    室  ।, , ᫨ 祫  ⢫ 䨪 ⠪ த,    ⮬  .

ந⥫쭮.   ஢ 祫  ᭮    ந⥫쭮  襭 । .  襪᭨ MTI,  ࠧࠡ⠫  ணࠬ,   ஢ 祫  ୮  - ᪮   ᨫ     ࠡ  .  ६ ᢮ ࠡ  AT&T ᫥⥫   [Thomas Speeter] ࠧࠡ⠫ ᯥ樠   ,   ஢ ,    室.[49]  ⥬   ᠭ樮஢ 㯠 । 䠪 থ  , ᭮뢠  ਭ樯,  ⨫ ࠡ ⥫ ⫨砥  ⨫ ࠡ  짮⥫.




ᯮ 


 ⫨稥  㣨 ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨, ᯮ   ᨢ ࠪ:   ⢫   祫,  ந 䨪     室 १ .  ᪨ ⥬ 䨪樨   ᯮ  䨪樨   (ATM),    , ॡ饬 襭  ᭮.   ᬠਢ  ਬ ⥬ ᯮ     ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७, ⮡    ,  ᪮쪮 㤮⮢७  祬   . [  ।⠢ Miros, Inc.]

⨫ ᠭ.  襥 ⢮ 孮 ᯮ  । ,   ,   몠 ,  ᭮  ᮡ⥩ ⨫ ᠭ.  1996    [Donald Foster], ᯥ樠   ஢   , ஠஢ ᥫ <᭮ 梥> [Primary Colors]  襫  뢮,  <>   ᠬ  -  舘 [ Klein], ॢ⥫ ୠ Newsweek.[50] (筮  䠪: 舘  ਧ  ⢥ ,  ୠ⠬ Washington Post  㤠 ⠩  ࠧ ઠ 舘  ࠣ 㪮 , ஠஢ ⥬ ਭ   [Maureen Casey Owens], 訬 騬 ᯥ⮬  㬥⠬ ਬ᪮ ਨ 樨  [Chicago Police Crime Laboratory].[51]) 筮  稭᪨ [Ted Kaczinski]  ஢  Unabomber  ᫥ ⮣,     ⨫ 쬠    㡫 .

 ,     ᠭ  ⥬ 䨪樨  諠 - 筮 ᫥,   뫮  䨪樥     1980- - 砫 1990- .  ⮣ 窨   ஢  孮 ⠪ ,  㤥 ஢ ⮢ ᯠ:    ⥭  ᬮ,  ਫ  . ᫨  ᮡࠥ  饬 ᯮ짮 ᪨ ⥬  쥧 ਫ,    ࣭ ⠭⨧樨 ࠧ  ⪮, 祬 ᯮ ᥩ.  ⨢ 砥  稬 ஬ ᫮ 㤠  訡 䨪権,  맮 ᮬ  ਥ    ਢ  ⮬,    㤥 祭 祫,  ᤥ訩 祣 宣.




 譥 


 1989  1995     ,   室  ண ࠢ ⥬ ᯮ .    ᢮  .  砫   室    吝  : ᪮   ᥣ   ,    ६   ⭮ .   砫   ࠢ 㯮     祭 ᮪ 筮. ਬ,   ॣ஢  ⥬ ᮢ ࠪ⨪ 稪,  믮 ࠡ   ,  ,   ।  -  ᢮ 㦠  ᤥ   ᥡ.   㦭 뫮 , ⮡ -    ,   ࠫ ࠪ⨪     .

    諮  ஡. १ ᪮쪮 楢  㦨,        ᨫ쭮   㬭 .  ⠪ ⨫,   ᪠ ⥬ 筠:     ஢ ⥬,   ६  㣨 ᯮ   ࢮ ࠧ. ( ᢥ   ஡   ⥬ ᯮ  ⯥⪠ 楢.)  筮 ⮣  ᮧ <ᮢ >, 訥  室  ।⥫쭮 நᥭ ஫쭮 ࠧ.

 饬 ⮫⨨ 樨,  ,  ப ࠭,  ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨    ᮡ   䨪樮 窨.  㤥 ਬ  ࠢ ﬨ      䠩.   ᬮ ,   ᨤ । ,   ,    ஥ . ,   । ᪨ ⥬,  ⮥ ᭥: ⯠ 室  ࠧ筮 த ஫,   ,  䨪樮 窠,   .    ६    ਬ஢, ᫨ -  㠫 ᮡ⥩ ᪨ ⥫  ᬮ  ࠢ쭮 ᠭ  ⠡쭮 ந.

।⠢ ᥡ 㭨 2020 .  ⮫ 㤥  , 롨 ࠢ訥        . ୠ ⥬ ᪠ ᮤন ᮢ,  ⮨ , ᫥ 祣 㠫쭮  㤥    㧭,  쥣   ᮮ⢥ 㬬.  ⥪ 㣠 ⥬ ᯮ   㦥  ࠤ樮  窨.  ᠭ樮 室 㤥   ᫥ ᪠஢   -  ᮡ   ਩  ਠ,    ᯮ짮 ⠬.   㤥 ᠤ । ஬, ⥬ ⮬᪨ ᪠   뢠    䠩.

 㭨 饣  㤥 室 ⠢   㤥 䨪樮 : ᮥ  㭨᪮  ⥫㠫쭠  ⥫쭮 ࠢ  ⮩ ࠡ⮩.  㭨, , -⠪ ਤ ᪠ - 䨪  㤥⮢, ⮡   ⢥न ᢮ ਭ  㭨   ।.  筮, 㭨 ਬ  , ⮡   থ ஭  ᢮   .

᪠ ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨 ࠡ⠥ ⮬,  㭨 ।⠢ ᮡ  ।,  㤥 室   ஢쭮. ᪮ 㤥  ⥫ 㬬  祭 ࠧ,  㭨᪨ , ⠪  ⥪, ᯮ⨢   饦,   ᠬ 饣 짮, 㤥 ᠬ ᮢ    䨪樨 ०.

  㤮 ࠬ, 뢠騬 ࠦ  室   . (   ஥ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡ 뢠   祫.) 祭 ᪮  , ,  祭   ,   ஢ 祫    㣨 ਧ. ୠ   ⥬ 饭  饤㯭  ᬮ ।,  ࠧ᪨   祫 ⥭묨 ࣠. ⨢  㣨  ,   ⠭,  祭   祫  ᨢ ,     ⥫ 㬬  ᢮ ।⭮ ,      ࠦ.  ⠪  ᭠㦨 ,    ⮬᪨ ,  ஥  । 祫  ᮮ⢥饩 ९樥. ᪮ ⠪ த ⥬    쭮,    ᮢ 뢠 ᪨,  , ᫨   ᯮ짮,   㣮 - 㤥 , ࠦ᪠ ⢥⢥   襭 ⭮襭 ⮢  ,     砥 訡筮 䨪樨.  ࠪ⨪   ணࠬ஢  ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  業    ⭮ 㯠⥫.

 饭樮쭮  , ࠭饩 ⮣䨨 ᥫ,  ⠪  ᫮ ,      㦥 饤㯭.  1990-   設⢥ ⮢ ⠫ ஢뢠 ⮣䨨  ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७.  ⮣䨨, 筮 㦥 室騥  饬 㯥,    த  , ᬮ  ,   饭 .  㦥 砫.  䥢ࠫ 1999  ࠢ ⢥ 浪  ஫ [South Carolina Public Safety Department] த ⮣䨨  3,5  뤠   ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७  Image Data LLC, ᯮ  ,  -. ᭮ 㡫  Washington Post , ⮨ ᤥ ⠢ 5  ஢,  ਡ⥫쭮  業  ᥬ ⮣䨩.

Washington Post 㯨 ⠪  ࠧ祭 ⮣ 䠪,  Image Data LLC 稫  1998   ਪ᪮ ⭮ 㦡 ࠭  ࠧ 1,46  ஢  孨᪮ ᮤ⢨.  뫮 祭 ᮧ 饭樮쭮  ⮣䨩,  । ᯮ짮    襭⢠  祪  ।묨 ⠬,  ⠪    ਧ  䨪樨 樮 .[52]

 Image Data 맢 ॢ, ᪮ ⮣䨨 ᮧ ஬ ⥭樠  㯮ॡ. ਬ, ᫨ ᪨ ணࠬ  ᪨ 㡥,   ஢ ணࠬ ।⮢ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  뢠 梥  騪   ਭ 襭  뤠 ।. 㣮 ਠ - 訡  ୮ ணࠬ, ᮡ ᮧ  孮 ஭ ⥩,  ਢ  ⮬,  ⥬ 筥 ।७ 뢠  䠪, ᬮ  ,   ⮣  ஢.  ⢨ ணࠬ १砩 ᫮ 㦨    ⮤ ஢ન.

 ᬥ譮,   ࠧ  襢  ⮩ ᯮᮡ ᯮ짮 ⮣䨩  ।饭 襭⢠.  ⮣ ⮡ ᮧ    栬,    ⮣   ।   祪 . ௮ Polaroid ࠧࠡ⠫ ।   ⮣䨥   1960- ,  設⢮  ⨢  ᯮ짮.   㬥⮢ 뫮 , ,  ⮣ ᭨  襭⢠,  㢥稢 ⮨ . 㣨   ⪠ ⠫ 室  ⮣   ଫ ,   﫮   ࠢ ४:  ଫ   ⮣䨥  室 뫮 筮 ਩  .

樮쭠  ⮣䨩 室   ᮧ.   室 㤨,   楫  㤥 ᯮ짮,  㤥       ࠧ 㤥 ४஢ 訡筠 ଠ. 뫮  ࠢ쭮 ।⠢ ⭮  ࠭祭   ⮩ ଠ樨  - ஫.




᪮ ⢮


 Washington Post 㡫 ଠ  ।饩 த ⮣䨩  ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७   ஫,  맢  .  ࠧ  ⠫ ࠧࢠ ࠪ, ⨢  襭 ࠢ ࠦ.    ⪫  㬥, ,  ⥫⢮  頥 ⠪ த.

 १ ⮣  㣨 樤⮢  ,  㦥  襥 ६, ਬ , 騥 த ⮣䨩  ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७ ⭮ .  ࠧ 㤭   ᯮ짮 ᬥ ᮡ⢥ ᮢ  ᮧ    ⮣ﬨ. ⠭  ᮢ ⮢  㦥 ᥩ 䨪 ࠦ ,   ।⭮ ⮩.  ।⠢  ᫮ ᮢ  ଠ    ।塞 .  奬 ⮫쪮 ,   ⠢ ᥡ  , ᫨ ⮫쪮 ⠪ ࠪ⨪  㤥 饭 ⥫쭮.

 孨᪮ 䠪 㭨 ஭ ⨢  [Steve Mann]  䨪 ࠦ 祫   ᮣ ⢮ ࠧ [likeness piracy].[53]  室稢 ᭨ ࠧ  ⢮ ࠧ  襭 ᪨ ࠢ [copyright infringement]: ᪮ ࠢ 頥  ந  䨪஢ ଥ. 襭 ᪮ ࠢ ࠧ㬥 ᢮  ᯮ짮 । ࠦ,   ६  ⢮ ࠧ ࠧ㬥 ᢮  ᯮ짮 ࠦ 祫  ਭ樯.

 ⥫⢥  ⮢  㣨 ࠭  ⢠ ࠧ ॣ㫨஢. ਬ,   - ⠥ 㯫 ᯮ짮 ࠦ 祫  ४   ᮣ.      砫 XX ,  ࣮ 砫 ࠧ    㯠  த⮬    ७,  稢 ।⥫쭮 樠쭮 ࠧ襭 祫. -  ।,    㤥 ࠡ   XXI ,    ⢠ ࠧ  ᪮ ⢠.   㤥 ᨫ, ᫨ ⨪   ਨ 㤥 ⠭  ᭮ ᫮襩   ࠪ⨪.




䨪  ᯮ짮 ᬠ-


-, த ࠦ  㭪   Gemplus, ।⠢ ᮡ  ⨪   ࠧ饭   ⮭ 稯.     ᥡ ய  ᪮쪮  .  ୮ ਬ ᬠ- - <஭ 襫쪨>,   ᯮ  ⢥ ⥫ ஭ 筮. -   ᯮ짮   ⢥ ᨬ  , 祬     ஢ 室   ଠ.  ਢ ਬ ᬠ- ᯮ  ⢥ 䨪, ᮤঠ饣 ஢ ⮣  , , ⯥⪨ 楢. ࠭筨 ࠢ  饩 ।  騭   ⮣䨥, ⠭  ᬠ-. ᪮  ᠭ   ⮨ࠦ ࠧ ᫮, 祬 ४  ⮣  㬥, ࠧࠡ稪  ⠪ 孮  ᭮.   孮 ⠥ ᥣ  ᭮,   ,  ᮧ⥫ 쭮    ᮪ ࠦ.  筮  ᬠ- 饣    饭, 祬 ।  ᥣ. [⮣䨨  ।⠢ ମ Gemplus]

 ᥣ 㯭 㦡 ⠢ United Parcel Service (UPS)  ⠪  㯭訬 ᪨ ⮬.  ⠢ 設⢠ ࠢ UPS ॡ, ⮡ ⥫ ᯨᠫ  ⢥ ⢥ত 祭.  1987  UPS 砫 ஢뢠 ࠦ ᥩ ⥫  ࠭    . ࠦ   ᫠  䠪 ,    UPS   800  ᨫ 㢥  祭 ࠢ.  1990  UPS ᮢ襭⢮ ᢮  孮, ᭠⨢ ᢮ ஢ ⨢묨 ࠬ, 묨 <ன⢠  ᡮ ଠ樨  ⠢> - DIAD [Delivery Information Acquisition Device].   ᭠頫 ஥ 뢠⥫ -  ᯥ樠 ⮬  . ⠢ ࠢ,  뢠 -  । ⥫ ᯨ  .   뢠   DIAD, ᫥ 祣, 筮,     UPS.

  ⨫      ⠪ ࠪ⨪, -ᥪ UPS  䥭 [Pat Steffen] ᭨ ,  樠⨢ ᤥ  㯭묨  ஭  室  ⮢ UPS.  ᬠਢ  ⢥ত ⠢. ஢ ⮣ ⢥ত 﫠 UPS ࠡ  ,    묨 㣨 ஢묨 묨. ࠢ  䠪 䨪⮢  ⢥ত  ⠢ ⢫ ࠬ UPS ⮬᪨, ᭨  䥭. ⠬ UPS ⠪ ।⠢   ᯥ樠쭮 ணࠬ ᯥ祭  ᫥ ⠢  ᬠਢ  ।⢥  ᢮ ᮭ쭮 .[54]

 , , ᤥ ஢ ᮡ⢥   ப 㯭, UPS ⥬ ᠬ ਭ  稬.  ⮫쪮  ஢뢠,  祭  㫨஢   , ਬ ⠢   ࠪ⮬. ⥬ UPS ᮡ 梨:   ᫥ ⠢ ࠢ,   ,  ᢠ ᫥⥫쭮, ਬ <0930 8164904>, <0930 8164913>, <0930 8164922>.   뤠  UPS ⠭樨, 諥  ᯮ짮  ଠ  ⠢  ᯨ᪠ ⥫ ࠢ  ᢮    ⥫.

UPS  梨 ᢮ ⥬,   ।ਭ 쥧 ⢨   樨.  web-ᠩ   㢨 砭 ᫥饣 ᮤঠ:

UPS ।⠢   ᯮ짮 ⥬ ᫥ ⠢ ⮫쪮  楫 ஫  ࠢ.  㣮 ᯮ짮 ⥬ ᫥  ଠ樨   ண 饭.

  ࠢ, UPS   ࠪ᪨ 祣  ⨢⢨ ⠪ ਬ쭮 ࠪ. <᫨ -  㧭  ࠢ,  ᬮ  ᤥ. ᫨ -  ᤥ - ,  㬠,    ⮦ 㤠.  ⮬ ᫮ ⨢>,-  䥭.    뫮  ᫮, ᫨  UPS ᯮ짮   ᫠  ஢    砫  ।᪠㥬 ࠧ.

ᮢ ᮮ⢮ 諮 訩 ᯮᮡ    ࠪ⨪ . ⭮,  襭 ᥣ     祪   ᢮, ⮡ ⮬    . ⮬  1997  Sea First  ⢮ 㣨   ० ⠫ 䨪஢  ⭮ ஭ 祪 ⯥⮪ 讣 , ᫨ 祫, ।訩 祪  稢,     . ⯥⪨ 楢 䨪஢   ᯥ樠 ୨: 祫      ୨  ⠢ ⯥⮪  ⭮ ஭ 祪, ᫥ 祣  㤠   ⪨ ୨. ᫨ 祪 뢠 ,  ᯮ殮 Sea First ⠢ ⯥⮪  襭, 祬 ॠ,   ࠭   ஭ , ᯮ    ५   㣮. ᪮ SeaFirst 뫮 ⭮ ⠪  筮 ६,  祪  ।  稢 ( 䨪஢  祪   ),  뫮   ⮣ 襭  娢 ᥩ ⥬ .   ⯥    ⠪ ⢫   讣 ⢠ ⥬ AFIS. , ᬮ     ⥬ 筠  孨᪮ 窨 ७,  ᯮ짮   䥪: , ।騥   祪,  ᥡ ⭮, ⮬       ⥭樠묨 㯭.

  祭  ।⢮ 䨪樨,  ⮫쪮  祫  ,  ।⢥ ந ७.  ⮫쪮 ᪨    ࠭  ,  ᭮, ᯥ稢 ᪮ 䨪樥, 室  .  ७ ᪨ ⥫    ᪮஢     㣮.   ᮡ ᪨ ⥬  ᫥ 뢠.  ᮦ,  ⮫쪮 ⮭,  祭   ਭ   쬨, ࠧࠡ뢠騬  ᯮ騬 ᪨ ⥬.




䨪 ⥫,   祫


᮫⭠ 䨪 - ᮡ⥫쭠 . ,  ᮦ,   砫쭮 筠.  ᠭ  ⮩  ⥬ 䨪樨   ⢥ ⪮:    筮,   ⥫.  ᮢ६ ⢥ ਤ᪨ ꥪ⮬  筮. 筮  ,  樠쭮 客  . 筮 㯠  த ᮡ⢥. 筮  易⥫⢠.   ᥣ  ⥯஢ 㭮 , ।騥  孮 .  ஦  㬨.

 ந室 㡨⢮,  ⥫ 蠥  㣮.  樨 砥  ⠭ 筮⥩  , .. 䨪樨   ᪥ 㯭.   頥 ⥫,  ᢮ 蠥 筮.  䨪樮  ,   ᯮ, 뤠 ᤥ⠬⮬ ,  ਭ  ⥬ CODIS, ⠥ ⠭ ᮮ⢥⢨  ꥪ⮬ ࠢ (筮)  ⥫,  ஬  ⠥.  楤 ᮢ襭.
  㯭  ⠢ 讣 㤠 ᮧ ᥡ 業 ᥢ     ⥫᪮ 㤮⮢७, 樠쭮 뤠 ⮬.  楫    㫥 ⥩ ᮧ 쭮 筮:  砫 室  ଠ  祫, த襬 ਬ୮    ६,   ,  㬥襬  ᪮ .[p13]  訢 㡫 ᢨ⥫⢠  ஦  ଫ 窠 樠쭮 客. ᫥ ⮣ 㦭  ⨢ ᯮ짮  , ਬ 믨   ୠ.   -  ᤠ    ⥫᪮ 㤮⮢७.

     ࠭ ଠ樨  ஦  ᬥ  ⠡ ࠭. த, 㣠    ᢮ ᮡ⢥ 娢.  ଠ : 쭨  ᣮ   娢,  䠩 - 㭨⮦.  㡫஢ ଠ樨 ⢫,  .  娢 ⥬ 祭 ५. ⢨ 業ࠫ樨 ଠ樨   ᯮ짮 騬 쬨. ᫥ ᢮ 筮 㬥襣  ⢥ 祫 ᠭ  ᯮᮡ 祭 ᫮  . ࠪ᪨ ⢥ 砩,   ,- ,  祫 ࠭ ࣠  ⯥⪮ 楢     ଠ ࠭   , ਬ  ⥪ ⯥⪮ 楢 楩᪮ ࠢ.     ⮩    ,   筮 쭠. ,       ,-   䠪,  ⥫  ⥫ ᯮ짮 - 㣮 .

㯭  ⢥ ⥣, 㦤   ,  㦭  ࠢ⥫.   筮⥩ 室  塞  ਬ । 楩᪨, 诨, ॡ稪  ⭨ 䥤ࠫ쭮 ணࠬ  ᢨ⥫. ⢮   ஭ ࠢ⥫⢠ ࠭,  ண ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨   㤥 ᮧ   ,   㣨 ࠭: ᥣ  ⠢   ᥭ  ন ࠢ⥫⢮    ଠ樨   ࠢ쭮 ଠ樨  ᪨ ⨢.

 ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨    ⪮:     .  1930-    ࣨ᪨ 﫨 ᢮ ⯥⪨ 楢 ⥬ ᠤ   㣨 ⪮ ⥫.  ⯥⪨ 楢  ⪨  ⠪   㤠    祫, ⠪   .   ⢮   , ⥬   ᭮ ࠢ஢.

 ⮣ ⮡     襭 樠쭮 ஡ ⥫᭮ 䨪樨,    । 樠   襭.   ਠ⮢    㦥祭   < 筮>  ⭮⥫쭮 ᫠ ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨.    ⥫쭮 ⠭,   ⮬    ⮫쪮   ०, ஥ 뫮 ।⢥ ,   祫,    ⮬ ᯮ짮.

 襬 饬  ⠭ ꥬ   ᯥ⮢ 襩 . , ᫥⢨ ᠭ  ⪮  ஡ 饬 ࠦ᪨ ᢮,  樢   - ᮧ ⢮, ⠫쭮 ᫥饥    ਨ.  ᫥  ⤥쭮 祫  樢   ᪫   ⮬ ਠ - ᫥ ᮡ⨩. ⮬ ᯥ 饭 ᫥ .





4

   ᥣ?



 ᪨   稭  .  , । ⥬  ࠢ ᯠ,  ࠫ   ஡ 뢠 ᮡ 襤襣 .  ࠧ   ६  砫   誠,  ᪮ ࠭   뫨   ஬᪨ ﬨ:  ᠫ,   ࠢ,   ,    ⨫  誮,   ਫ  ⥫䮭.  筮,  뢠 ஡ ᠬ ᢨ:    뫨, 㤠 室,     .

ਡ⥫쭮 १    稫 쭮 ⥫쭠 ⮯  ᪨ .   ६    ⠭    , ॡ ᫨誮  ᨫ, ⮡ 뢠  ஡.  筮   ஥   ᮬ ᢮ ᮡ⢥ .
 ᮢ६     ࠧ .  ࠧ,   㯠 -  ।⭮ ,   쪨  ᫨,[p14]    筮 ६   㯪.   ⠫   㯪    襬 㯥ଠથ: ⠬ 㪠뢠   ⢮ ᥣ,   ਮ५  ᢮ .   窥  饣 ᠦ 㪠  த,    ᮢ蠫   祭 ᫥ . ᫨   砩  ,   ଠ樥 祣  ந -   ⭮ ࠭  ᫥  .

 ଠ   ⥫䮭  ⥫쭮 뢠, ᯥ뢠  ।⠢     . ,    稫  ,  㦪 訫 ࢠ    ६ 㣮த ࠧ.  ਫ 20 ,  ⥬  ᨫ 㡪.    ᭮  ᭮,   ࠧ 몠  ⮮⢥稪. १ ᪮쪮   襫   ᯥ⪮ :  ࠧ ⥫쭮 20 ,    १ ⪨ ஬⪨     15 ᥪ㭤.

 ᠬ 讥 ⢮ ଠ樨    ࠭ ⪨   : 娢 ஭ ᥬ 稭   ᮢ .    600 ,  ⠢ ਬ୮ 315  ࠭ ⥪, ⠭ १  ࢠ,   40 ࠭   稭  3 ᥭ 1983 ,   稫 ᢮  ஭ ⮢ 騪  MIT.

<࠭  ᢮  ஭ 쬠,- ᪠    ஫ । ᠬ ᪮.-   饬 ਪ    80-  XX ,  㤥   ,    >.    ࠢ:   ᪠  祢 ᫮  ᮢ६ ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ⥪⮢ - ਪ  饬 㤥 筮  ᮧ 祭  ⨭   稭  㤥᪨  ⥬  ⠢  ஭ ᥩ.

  娢 䠪⮢  ⫥ -  . ஬  ᮡ⢥ ,  ⠢  ⢮ <ଠ樮 ⥭> [data shadow],    ᥪ  ᥤ  ,  ᬮ  ⥭ .

ନ <ଠ樮 ⥭> ।  1960-   ⨭.  㬡᪮ 㭨  -થ, ⨭ ।०,    ।, ᪨  客 ,  ⠪ 㣠 ଠ,  ஭  ਪ,    ᪮஢  ᮧ ஡ ஭ .    㤨⥫쭮 筠: 祭  ⢮     , 㤠   ⥭,  祭   饬 ᬮ ஫஢ ᢮ ஭ , । ⨭.

諮  ⨫,  ଠ樮 ⥭ ᫨  ᪮ ।  ꥪ⨢ ॠ쭮,    .

 ⮨  ࠭ ଠ樮 ਧ.  ࠭ ⠪ ஬ ⢮ ଠ樨  ⠪ ⢥   ᮡࠫ  ⠪ ⢥ ࠧ .  ࠭ ⠪ ஬ ⢮ ଠ樨  뫮 ⠪  㯭 ⠪  ० ⠪ ⢮ ᯮᮡ   ⠪ ⢠ ࠧ 楫.

 ⫨稥  ஭ ,   ࠭   ⨢ ,  ଠ樮 ⥭ 諠 -  ஫. 뫥  ࠬ  ࠧ ,  ଠ樮 ⥭   ⮩ <ᬨ୮> 箬    㣨 ⥭ﬨ    ௮権  ࠢ⥫  ᥬ .  ⥭   祫᪨ ᥪ⮢  ⨥.  ⥭ ⠢  ᮮ⢥⢮  ⠭ ⢥⢥.  ᪮ ଠ, 뢠  ⥭,  砩  ४⭮,     梨묨 ⨢   ﭨ  ⢨,     ᮢ蠫.

    :    ⨢ ⮣ 쭮 থ   .     ४饭 䨪樨   ᮡ⨩.  ⠬,  ⠪ 䨪 室,   ⠭ ᮮ⢥  ࠪ⨪  ਭ ,   ࠭஢ ਪ᭮ 襩 ⭮  -    冷   ଠ樮 ⥭.  㦥   ࠭. ,  室 ,-  ,     ଠ 뢠     ⠭.




ଠ樮 ਧ


 ⢥ ᯥਬ ஡ ⠢ ᯨ᮪ ଠ樮 ᫥,   ⠢ . ⠫   ।⭮ ⮩? . ⨫   묨,  । ⨬ 稫   ? ᫨ ,   ⨥  ⠪ ⠢   ଠ樮 ⥭.  㣮த ,  ⠢  ⮮⢥稪 ᮮ饭   饭  ୥ web-ᠩ -    襣 ஡襣 .

 ⠢  ᫥, ᫨   த,  ।⭮ ⮩  ᫨  ࠡ 易  ᯮ짮 ⥫䮭  .  㤥 ⠢  ᫥, ᫨   ᥫ᪮ ⭮  .  ⮬  祣 ࠭:   ஡ ଠ樨 ᤥ  ᮢ६ ࠧ⨥ .

⥫쭮 㣮 - ꥬ ᢥ ଠ樨,     ⨬ .  ࠧ,   ᭨ 죨  ,  뢠   ⢮  ,  ᠬ 䠪 襣 宦  ⭮   ⭮ ६.   , 㤮 ⮬᪨ ।⥫ (),  쪠 ஡窠      (, , ),   筮 ६,   ᤥ ᢮ .   ୥,  web-ࢥ   ஭ ᯫ   ⬥,  ࠭  ᬮ५,   ᪮ 襣 , ⨯ ᯮ짮 㧥    ᪮ ⮯.

 ⥬   ᤥ 譮 .   1986    [John Diebold] ᠫ   , :

:⠭  ⮢  ᤥ ᭮ , < 筮 ⢮ ⨩  ந    㭮  2 ᠬ>: ਢ ,   ⥪⨢  ⠭ ⨭. ᭨,  設⢮ ਯ ⮢ ᭨  죨, ࠢ   ⠫  䮭३![55]

 襩  Knight News Service ᫥ 樤  ਫ: <-  ਪ  ,  ,   ⮢ ⨫ ⥭ 襤襩 >.[56] (,    ஢ 1960- - 1970- , ᭠砫  ஭ ᮧ 樮쭮 ଠ樮 業.   1986   ⠫ ,   ஥ 業 뫠 ஬ 訡, ⠪  ਢ  ᫨誮 让 業樨 ଠ樨   .)

 뢠 ,  娢 ⮢, <稬 䠩> [hot files].  祭 ,    ᮢ襭  ଠ  室  ।  設⢠ .

᫥ 15      ப ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨.   ࠭ 砥,   , ந襫  1980- .  ਪ᪮ ࠢ  졥  મ⨪ [Drug Enforcement Agency, DEA] 砫 ᮯ⠢   ᠤ᪨   ଠ樥  ᪨ . ஥ 뢠 < " ࣮">.  1993  DEA  㤭⢥  묨 ࠢ࠭⥫묨 ࣠ ।⨫  4  ⮢ 権, ⮢    ⥫  ஧  ஢ ⠫    ਡ뫨  ⢠.[57]  ணࠬ ࣫ ⨪,  뢠 , ⢠ ன ⠫  ⮫쪮 㯭,    ࠦ. 騪 ᪠ , ⠩ 騢 㠭.     ⢮ મଥ஢ ࠤ  ᪮쪮  ᠤ,  襣  ᥤ  ।஬  New York Times. Times  㡫 ।   ⥬,    ⠭ ⥫쭮 DEA.

ਪ 稫    ਧ   1987 ,  १   뤢   客    ઠ [Robert Bork]. 뤢 ઠ ﭭ ⨢ 㯯 騭, ,   祭  ਬ樨 騭;  ᠫ,       襭    ⮢.  ᪠ ஬ ୠ  ࠫ쭮  City Paper  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, 稫 ᯥ  䨫쬮,   ࠫ ப  襩 ⥪. ୠ   ઠ  ⨨  ୮䨨,     ᮢᥬ 㣨:  146   ப 䨫쬮 設⢮  ᭥᪨ 䨫쬠  䨫쬠 窮.

   ९ ઠ 뫠 ᪮쪮 祭.  㡫樨  થ  ⢮ ᪠  ਥ ६ 砭 ஢  䠪,  ୠ ⠫  묨 㪠  ᢮ ᪠ ୮䨨.  ⮣ ନ஢ ,   㢫 ୮䨥, ,  ࠩ , ⥫ ⠫  ⠪ 뢮.

஡  䠩 ⮨  ⮬,   ᫨誮 稥:   ஭,  뢠 ⠪ ଠ  ,  設⢮  ।    ਫ筮 ⢥;  㣮 ஭, 室   ଠ  ࠢ쭮 ஢.  ⮣,  ଠ    䠫஢: ᫨  㦠騩 ⥪ ⥫,      ॣ樮  ઠ   ୮᪨ 襪,      ᬮ ,   䠫訢.

 襬 ⢥ ॢ ਧ ⥬   ࠭ ଠ樨,   ᪮ 㤥   襥 ᫮ 砥,  ଠ, ᮡࠥ ⠪ ⥬   楫, 㤥 ᯮ짮 ᮢᥬ  㣮. ⨥ ᮢ६ 孮   業਩   ॠ.      ࠭  㯭  ଠ: ⥬ ஥஢ ⠪, ⮡ ਮ᪨  ,     㦭.  ᮢ६ ஢ ࠧ 孮 ࠭ ଠ樨 ⨣ ⠪ ,    ࠭     ᫥ ⮣,     㦭  ⥪饩 ࠡ.  १ ᥣ   ࠭ ࠧ       ,   ந諮  ﬨ  ઠ  ⥪. ஡  ⢥  :   楫  ⥪ ࠭   䨫쬠,   ࠫ ப, ᫥ ⮣,   뫨 饭?

  ଠ樨 ᮧ  ⠭ ஫쭮  襬 ⢥.     १㬯樨    ᢥ塞  ﬨ  ,  宩,   訩. ᮪ 㯭 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨 砥 ⠪  㯭, த, 蠭⠦⠬, ஢ࠬ  㣨 <娬 >.    ࠬ 砥 ⠫ 㡨⢮    [Rebecca Schaefer]  1989 .  ਫ 筮  ᨫ  ࠭ ᢮ ਢ⭮.   蠭 19-⭨ , ⠢訩   ,  ⭮ ⥪⨢, ⮡  襫 譨   㬨. ⥪⨢ ⨫  ୨᪮ ࠢ  ॣ樨 ࠭ᯮ । [Department of Motor Vehicles], ஥   ६ ।⠢﫮 ॣ樮 ଠ  饬, ⠪   﫠 饤㯭. ᫥ ⮣ 䠭 ஭   , ஦     ५   ,  ⮫쪮  뫠 室 .[58]




஬ 䠫訢 


  ୠ ஡   ଠ樨 -  ,   뢠 <ᨭ஬ 䠫訢 > [false data syndrom]. ᪮ 設⢮   ⮬  ଠ樨 ४⭮,   ।ᯮ ,   ४  - ᭮ 㦤, ஬  ࣠ .  㦤 ন ⠢騪 ଠ樨, 뢠 ⪨ ᢮ ⥬.

ਬ,  1997  ⥫䮭  NYNEX (室 ⥯  Bell Atlantic) ⨫ ᨢ ४   த 㣨 ।  饣  ᢮ ⠬.   <,   ,   㡪> ᨫ:

।⥫    㧭    뢠饣 ,     ਭ 襭: ⢥   ᥩ  १ .  ᫨ 訩  ⠢ ᮮ饭,  ।⥫  ⮬᪨   襣,  ⥫䮭  ६ . ।⥫ ⠪ ࠡ⠥  ०  맮, ⮬   㧭,      ६ ࠧ  - 㣨.[59]

筮, NYNEX  ⨥ 䨪樨 筮 䨪樥 ⥫䮭 . ।⥫ 뢠   ⥫䮭, ਭ騩 襬,  ,  ண  .  뢠 <७> ।⥫, ᢥ稢騩    ⥫䮭,  ᠬ  뢠   饣,   祫,  ண   ᠭ  ⥫䮭 ࠢ筨. ᫨  ᤥ ⮩ , 室      ਭ,  ᯮ   ஧  १  (㤠⢥ 㯫),  ।⥫ ᪠,  㯭 - ,   .




᫥ :   ଠ   饭 ⨢ 


  ᮡࠥ ᮧ ⢮,  ஬  ⥫ ஡ ᥤ  ﭭ 뢠   .   饥,  ஬  㢥७   楫  樠, ᪨  孮᪨ 䠪஢.

 ᢮⢥ ᪫  ᮡ⥫. 宫᪨ ࠧ  ⠢ -, 祬 .     ⭮   ଠ樨.    ᥡ ⭮, 㭨⮦  ᯮ    :    ,  -  . ६ 孮    ⨢   祣  뢠,  ࠩ  ଠ.

 ,   㯨  1978 , ࠭ ଠ  䮭 .    200  ଠ樨  30- ,    ⫨. ,    ᥩ,  ७ ⪨ ,   ࠭   ଠ樨.
  㢥祭   30  ࠧ ந諮 ᥣ   ⨫.      㭨쭠:    ᬥ, ࠢ⥫⢠    ⨫  ᢮ ⥩  ࠭ .  樢,  ᯮ㥬     ࠭  襣 ⢠ ⥫ ஡⥩ 襣 㤭筮 ⢮.  ந ஢  [datasphere][p15]- ᨢ ଠ樨, 뢠饩    ⢨  .

஥ ஢  - 蠣 , ஬  㦥 ᫥ ᫥㥬,  ਭ    ﭨ  饥 ਢ⭮. 砫 ਠ쭮 ⢮ ᮧ    ࠭ . ⥬  १砩 ⨫ ⮬  ଠ樨  . ᫥ 蠣 - 㯮冷祭 ⮩ ଠ樨  쭮  ,  ன     祭  室   .

᪮  ᮡ, ந室騥  襩 , ⥬᪨ 뢠  設⠥ ଥ,  ଠ 稭  ᠬ  ᥡ.   室  ਬ. ᫨   ᤥ 蠣    ⠭ ᡮ    ଠ樨,  ᪮ 稬 ,  ஬      ⢨ ﭭ <  ࠭>.




 1:  ଠ ᮡࠥ


 蠣   ஥ 쭮  - ᮧ 襩 ⥬ ᡮ ଠ樨. ।⠢ : ᠬ  ᥡ ॢ   ଠ樨.  ᫨  ன  , ஭㬥㥬 ॢ, ⠭    , 襬 筮 ⮯,  ᮧ  , ।⠢    ᯥ樠⮢  㦠饩 ।, ⠪   ॢࠡ뢠饩 ஬諥.

 來  ᠭ 蠣  稫  1988   ६ 饭 ᯮ 冷  ⮭  BASF  ந 䫮-᪮.  㧭,    ⮢   ન ᯥ樠  - ஬ . 쬨  ᪥,  , ᪮॥ ᥣ, 㢨  ⭮ ஭  : 25114, S2078274  01S1406.    ந⥫ ᪠, ,  ,  ஬   ᤥ,   ६ 砫 ந⢠ ⮣ .  ଠ  ।⢥   ᥫ,    뫪    ⭮   ⥬ ஫ ⢠.   砥,  ஢   室  ᯥ樠쭮 ଠ樥, ன ந⥫ ।   ⢥.

砫쭠 楫 ᥭ   砫  祭  ஫ ⢠.  㦥 䥪⭮ ᪠ ந⥫      ।  ந宦. ᬮॢ    ,   ஫ ⢠  祭 筮  㤮, 맢襥 ஡,    蠣  ।饭 ࠪ  쭥襬.  筮   ᡥॣ 죨    ९.

 ⮫쪮  㧭,  ᯮ  ⮢,  ᪮ 筥   :  ⪠ , 뫮窠  ⢠, 誥 䮭ਪ.  ꥪ ⮫쪮 ,     砥 ᢮ 㭨 ,   ⮬ 砥 뢠 ਩ ஬. ॢ୨ , ᮥ  襬 ,      ⠪ . 㣮 ਩  ᥭ  ᠬ ,  ⠪  讥 ᫮ ⤥ ⮢  .   ᪮쪮 .   ਠ쭮 ॢ樨   ᠬ ᫮ 孨᪨ ஡,  ன ⮫㫨 , 뫮 ந⢮ 㭪樮쭮 , 塞 ⥩.   ⮫쪮  稫   ⫨稬묨   㣠,      㭨 , ⮡ ࠧ .

 ⮢  ਩  㦠  㭤⠫쭮 楫:  宦  ⫨稬묨   㣠,   䨪஢   .  ᥭ,     ᯮ짮  ⮫쪮  ⮣ ஫ ⢠: ਩    ⮢   ᯮ  ⥫쭮 ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠.

 ⮢  ᫮ ⥫⢮, ਬ,  ᫥ 砥  ⮢஢. ᫨  த  ࠧ  ਭ   , ᪮॥ ᥣ, <>  뫠 饭 אַ  ।⨨. ᫨     ࠧ ⮢, ..   ந  ࠧ 䠡ਪ,   祢,     אַ     ᯮᮡ.

  ᠬ 㤠 ਬ஢ ન஢  䨪樮  ࠭ᯮ⭮ ।⢠ [Vehicle Identification Number, VIN],- 17-ᨬ , ᨬ  ਡ , ⥫    ᪠   ⮬.  ᪠   [Thomas Carr],   ᯥ祭 ᭮ ᠦ஢ ਪ᪮ 樠樨 ந⥫ ࠭ᯮ [American Automobile Manufacturer's Association], VIN  ᮧ  1970-  樥 ந⥫ ⮬  ࠢ⥫⢠, ६騬  㭠த ⠭⨧樨.[60]  16 ᨬ VIN  ଠ  ந⥫, ࠭ ⮢, થ   ⮬, ,  ந室 ᡮઠ,  ᪠, ࠭祭  ⮣ ⮬, ⨯ ࠭ᬨᨨ  ᯮ㥬    㧮,  ⠪ 6- ᫥⥫ .

᫥ ᨬ VIN  ᯥ樠쭮 祭.  ⠪ 뢠 ஫쭠 .   ᥡ     ଠ樨,  뢠  ⠫ ᨬ.     ஢ VIN    ᠬ,   ⮬᪨ । 讥 ᫮ ⮪, ⠪  砩 ६ ᨬ ⠬  ⨥ ᬥ    . ᪮ VIN  ᢮ࠧ 箬, ᯮ㥬  ᪠ ଠ樨  ⭮ ⮬, १砩 , ⮡   ⠭ ࠢ쭮,  .
VIN ᯮ  ᫥ ⮬  祭 ᥣ  ந⢠. ᫥ ⮣  ⮬  , VIN ᯮ ࠢ⥫⢮  ᫥ ⮣,   ,   楫 ᡮ , ⠪     ஧᪥  饭   㣭 ⮬.   ᫥  VIN ⠫ 믮    㭪 - 䨪樨 ⮬ ᫥ 뢠. ᫥ 뢮  ᥬ୮ ࣮ 業  -થ[p16]  䥤ࠫ쭮  Murrah  宬- ᫥⢨    㤠 筮    㧮, ᯮ짮  㯫. ᥭ   VIN  ⠭ 楢 設, ,  ᢮ ।,  ,   ७,  , ⠪ ࠧ,  ᠬ 뢭.




 2:  ଠ 設⠥


⮬᪨ ᡮ  - ன 让 蠣, 室  ᮧ . ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ 뢠 樨 ଠ樨    ।⢥  ,   祫. ᬮ    ⮬⨧஢ ⥬   筮 ண  ⠭,  㭪樮஢ ਢ  ⢥ 㤥襢  ᡮ , ।⠢  ᮧ ஬ ᨢ ଠ樨  ন   㠫쭮 ﭨ.  筮 ,  ᭮ ப 뭪  室  ᯮ짮 ⮬⨧஢ ⥬, ⠫ ࠧ  ᫥  .




PSN ௮樨 Intel


ଠ Intel  ਫ ਩  ஢ [Processor Serial Number, PSN]  ய Pentium III.

砫쭮   뫨 ࠧࠡ⠭  䨪樨 <ࠧ> ஢ (..    ⠪⮢ ⮩ 500  த  600-殢 稯)   祭 ᫥ ६饭 ஢  㯭 ࣠.  襥 㪮⢮ 㧭  ⮩ , PSN 뫨 ९ᥭ  襭  ஭ 樨: Intel । web-ᠩ⠬ ᯮ짮 ᯥ樠쭮 ணࠬ ᯥ祭  뢠 PSN ᪨ ஢ १ ୥.

  ﭢ 1999  PSN 뫨 ஢, Intel ᤥ 業   ਬ  ஭ 樨,    ।⢠ ⨢ ᫥. 㪢쭮 १  ᪮쪮 㯯 짮⥫ ࣠  ய, ࠢ ।, , ᪮॥ ᥣ, PSN  ਬ  ᫥ ६饭 짮⥫  ᠩ⠬ ୥.  ६  ᯥ   ਯ⮣䨨   [Bruce Schneier] 㡫 ࠧ஬ ,  ன  PSN १ ⨪, ⠪   ⢮ ᭮ ᯮᮡ 뢠  ஢.  ᠫ:

 web-ࢥ 訢 䨪 ,    㧭,   祭  ⢥ ᫮ ⨭  . 筮,  - ணࠬ 訢 PSN,    ⮢୮ , ⢨⥫쭮   饭 ॠ 䨪  ᯥ樠 ࠧ ஢ 樮 ⥬ 墠⨫ 맮  㫠 쭮 ᫮. ᪮ Intel  ⨫ ࠫ ᮧ ᭮ ᯮᮡ 뢠 䨪, ᭮  祭 .[61]

ਪ᪠ ᪠ ⥬,  ᫥ 㯭 ᥪ஢ ,    諠  ᯮ짮 設⠥ .  1963    砫  祪  ᯮ짮 ᯥ樠  ୨,   ࠬ ⮬᪨ 뢠 9-  ,  ⮢   祪, ⯥⠭   祪.  뫠 ⥫쭠 :  1969  90% 祪   ⠫ 騬 묨 ࠬ, ⢥ ᭨ ६, 室   ࠡ.[62]  1970-  ᪠  ⠫   ।   ,  﫮 뢠 ଠ ஢ ⮩  뢠⥫.  ⮣ ଠ      , ⮬ ॢ  ᫨  ᯮ짮 ஢쭮 㬠  ஫.

㣨 ᫨ ࠧ    ஭ ⮬᪨ 뢠 ଠ ⥬. 쪮  । 1990-  General Motors ⠫ ⥫쭮   ⠡窨  VIN- 設⠥ -.  ⫨稥  ண ᯮᮡ,  VIN   ⠭ ⮫쪮 祫, -  뢠 ᮪ந⥫  ᪠஬  ﭨ   ஢.   ஭ ᥭ -  VIN.

    ᯮ짮 ⢮  ப ⮬ Avis, 砢襥 ਬ  ᪠  ⮬᪮ 䨪樨 ⮬  饭   ﭪ.  訥  設⠥ VIN 㤥   襥 祭. ਬ, த᪨ મ  ᯮ짮 -  ⮬᪮ 뢠  ﭭ ⠬. 㣨  㦥 ࠧࠡ⠫ ⥬ 孨᪮ ७,   뢠  饣  饣 ⮬,  ࠡ  ᮧ ⥬,    ஢ ⮬  ﭨ.




뢠⥫ ஢ ⮬


஭ ⪨ 㦠  ⮫쪮   設  ⮩ ண. ਪ᪠ ⠬ ⠭ 뢠⥫ ஢ ⮬  設⢥ ࠭ 㭪⮢    . ᯮ㥬   ⥬  ᮪ ࠧ襭  㦨    設  祭 ᪮쪨 ᥪ㭤. ࠦ  㭪 뢠⥫  Perceptics ।  ᠬ , ⠪  뤠訩    .   : < 訬 뢠⥫  ࠫ ⠭ ⮩ >. [⮣  ।⠢ ମ Perceptics]

訥 設⠥ ⪨ ᯮ  묨  ᪨ ⥬,  ᪠   ࠤ.  孮 뢠 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification Device - ࠤ 䨪樮 ன⢠)  ⮨   ⥩: 筮 ६ 稯  쪮 ⥭, 뢠 ⪮,  뢠⥫  ଥ ⮫.  稯 ᪠  㭨 . 筮  뢠⥫  稯,   ࠭ ᢥ ᮮ⢥騩 .  ।  ᮥ  뢠⥫ .     ⥩,  㦤  筨 ⠭   ࠭祭 ப 㦡.

  ࠢ 뢠⥫  ࠭ᯮ    , ன⢮ 稭   ஭ 稯 ࠤ । . ࣨ  ࠤ 㫠 ⥭ ࠭ᯮ  ⠥ 稯 ࠭ᯮ  ஥    ࠤ।稪. ࠭ᯮ  ⢥ 뫠 㭨  稯 ( ᮢ६ 稯 ᯮ 64- )  㣮 .




 䨪樮 ன⢠ (RFID)


⥬  ᭮ ࠤ 䨪樮 ன ࠨ 設⠥ ਩   ⮬   ,   ⥫ 譨     祫᪮ ⥫.  ᭮ ⥬  ஭ ⪠, ⨢㥬 ᫠ ࠤᨣ,  ⢨ ண ⪠ 稭 । ਩ . RFID-⪨ ᪠ ࠧ묨 ﬨ,  ⥣    ﭨ  ᪮쪮 ⮢.  ᯮ ⢥ 䨪஢  릭,  ⢥ 䨪樮 ⠡祪 㤭   ᫥ ६饭 . 宦 孮 ᯮ  設⢥ ࠫ  ⮬⨧஢ ⥬ . ᪮ ⥬ ᨢ  祬 ᥡ  뤠, ଠ   ⠭ ⭮ (  ।⥫쭮 襭) 祫, 饣 ࠤ.
  㣨 ⥬ 䨪樨, RFID-⥬  ᠬ    設, 譥 ⭮  祫,    . ᪮  ᮢ६ RFID-⥬  ᯮ ਯ⮣᪨ ⮤ , । 䨪樮    墠祭, 䠫஢   - .[p17] ⪠   ⠭ ⭮   .   ᮢ६ ⪨   ७ ,  ।, ᪮쪮 ࠧ ⪠ 뫠 ⠭,   ,   ⠥,   . 宦,  ந⥫  ⥬,   짮⥫  ᯮ  筮 ஢ ᭮,   ।⠢. [⮣䨨  ।⠢ ମ Trovan]

RFID-⥬ ᪠ ᪮쪨 ﬨ.   㯭 뢠 Trovan  ᯮ  ⠭.  㯭  ᪠ Trovan ன  ࠧ  7     ﭨ ਬ୮ 60;  ᠬ 쪮  ࠧ ᮢ ୠ.  ⪠ ⠥ ਬ୮  㬥,  ࠧࠡ⠭  訢     饭 ਧ樨. Trovan ந ⠪ ᯥ樠 㥬 ⪨,  ᪠  ਫ, ⮢  ਬ ࠧ ,      ⭮  祬  20 ᥪ㭤.[63]

  Yamaha  ⠭ ᯮ ன⢠ Trovan    饭ﬨ 横.  65 ⮢ ૨ ( 100 ஢ )   ⠭ 稯 Trovan  ࠬ 横, , ⮯   ᨤ. ᫨ 横 㤥 饭 楫   ,      ஢,  - ⠥  த.

  RFID-⥬ ਬ  ⨢  - 孨 ࠢ ᮬ,   ᭨  ⥬ ⥫쭮  ᯮ짮 ਮ⥭ 饩.   ਬ - ᫥  .  ૥  ᢥ૨ 讥 ⢥⨥,    頥 RFID-ன⢮,  १ 祣   祭 筮 ᫥ ६饭      ⠬. 㣨  ࠨ RFID-ன⢠  筮 㬥,   ࠡ稩    ᤠ ⭮,    ⥪.

 ६ 㥬 ⪨ 砫 ᯮ짮  ઠ  ન஢ ᪨ .  ୮ ਪ  ᯮ   ન஢ 譨 :   1997    200 砬 ਪ᪨ 襪  ᮡ 뫨 ஢ RFID-稯. ᪮쪮  ন 饭樮  ,  ன   䨪 稯 ᠭ   ⭮,    ⥫䮭. ࣠樨 த ਪ᪮ ⢠   [The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, ASPCA]  -થ,  ⢥ -  ୨,    - ਮ 뢠⥫.  㦥  㫨 ਧ  । ࠢ   室 ᪠஢.

 뢠  䠪, २⢮ 孮 RFID  ⮬, ,  ⮫쪮 ࠤ⪠   ꥪ,  ⠭  ⮣ ꥪ. ਩   㦨   ॡ   ࠢ ᫮⮩.  VIN   㤠  ⮬. ஢   ᠬ    ਪ .   稯    ਩  - , ࠥ, ।塞  ﭨ.

ᬮ    祢 ⨢樥  ન஢  ᫥ 뫮 ।饭 , ᪮   ᢥ  㣨 २⢠ 襭 ஫. ਪ᪨ ଥ 㦨, ,  ⮫쪮  ⭮ 砥 ਩ ,   ࠭ 祭  ६ . ᫥ ⭮  ஦  , ࠭ ஡   樭樨, ଫ, , ᮤঠ   ஢  ࠧ㪮 ᪠஢, ଥ  ᯮ짮 筮 ᭮ ⮤ ࠢ   ᯥ ᢮ ⥫쭮

 筮   ⥫쭠 ࠡ  㢥 뭮 ⮨ ⭮ ਡ⥫쭮  700  1000 ஢.  ६ ਪ᪮ ⢮ ᥫ᪮ 宧⢠ ᮡࠥ  ᪮஬ ६  易⥫ ஭ ન஢ ண⮣ ᪮    ﬨ.[64]




 3: ந   


ਢ訥 ⪨ ਪ᪨ ଥ   ⮣  ப:    -   ,  ⫨砥 ࣠ <ᢠ>   㯮冷祭 ଠ樨.  ᠬ ࣠    ⠭ ⨪ 㯠  ᮤঠ饩   ଠ樨  ᠬ 쥧 ࠧ   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ ᥣ ।  ᫥.

ᬮਬ ஭ ⥬ ᡮ ஦ ⥦ [Electronic Toll Collection, ETC].  ᫥   ⥬, 騥 ⥫ ⮬    ஥  ࠫ  ⠬,  㧨 ਭ  ᥬ .   ୮: ⥬ ETC   ᪮ ࠭ᯮ.  ⥫  㦭 ⠭, ⮡  ᪮쪮 ⮪  ਥ  ⤠ 죨 ,  ⮣ 設⢮ -⥬ ᯮ ࠤ⪨, 㭨쭮 騥  設  ,  ண ⮬᪨ ᭨ ᮮ⢥ 㬬.

 1988  ଠ Micro Design ASA 㤮    ⥬ ࠫ  ࢥ  ᥢ  ஭奩. 孮  ࠧ.  ⥬, ந 袥᪮ ମ Saab Combitech,   ᮤন ஭ ⪨  祬  10 ᥪ㭤  ᪮ 設  160/. ⥬ Saab ⠪ । ᪮ ⮬ ⥬ ७ ஢᪮ ᬥ饭 ࠦ ࠤᨣ.

 1994  Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA), -, ⠭ -⥬   E-ZPass  㭪  ஥ १  ࠧ. ᫥  ࠭祭,   砫, E-ZPass ᪮ 믮 ᢮ ।祭, 㢥稢 ய᪭ ᯮᮡ  ࠢ  250  1000 ⮬  . ⢥ ਭ﫠   㧨 -  祭     ⨫  550  ⮪ E-ZPass.

< ࠡ稩   砥 280  ⥦  ஥  ஭ ,  ⠢ 42%  ࠭権>,- ᠫ   [Michael Ascher], १   ᫥ ᡮ୨   1997 .[65]  ⥬ - E-Pass ⠪ 뫠  㧨 ਭ ⥫ﬨ ਤ  ண Orlando - Orange County Expressway.

 権   䥤ࠫ ࠫ 묨 ᠬ  ⮨,   ⢨ -⥬.    ७ ⥬, ᯮ騥 ᮢ⨬ ⪨:  E-ZPass ᯮ ⪨, 㥬  ஢ ⥪,   ६  E-Pass  ਤ ᯮ ࠤ࠭ᯮ ࠧ஬  䮭ਪ, 㥬  । ஬ ⮬. 樨 ࠫ ,   祭 ᪮쪨    ਬ  饭樮 ⥬,   稢 ஥  ᥬ ⠬  ࠫ  ୨  -ઠ   ஭.

 樨  㤥   ஡ ﭨ 塞 ⥬  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.  ﭨ  ⢥. ⥬ ETC ࠭ ஡ ଠ  ⮬,  ⮬    ६ ᨫ   ஥. 樠쭮 ⥬ ETC ࠭ ଠ, ⮡ 筮 뫠 ⥫ ஡   ᤥ  ⥦.       ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,  ᯮ   ⮫쪮  쭮 ⭮. ࠭   ᪠஢   ⠢ ᯨ᪠ ,  ஥  .  ⥪⨢  ᯮ짮  ଠ  ᫥ ६饭  㣮.   ᫥  ﬨ,  㯭 ᯮ짮   ᪠ .

᪮   ⮫ 让 ꥬ ଠ樨  ६饭, ࠭    㤥 ᯮ짮   祭. 㦤騥  죠 ࠢ⥫⢠ ⮢ 㦥 த ᢮   ⥫᪨ 㤮⮢७  த R. L. Polk,  ᯮ  ଠ  ⠢ ᯨ᪮  뫪 ४.[66]   ᫨ ଠ  த, ᠬ 䠪  ⢮ 砥,  ࠭   - 宩 ७ 㯨 稭 , ⮡    ᢥ ଠ樨.

宦,  ࠫ  ਤ 쥧 祭 ⨬ ᪠.  1995  Massachusetts Turnpike Authority (MTA) 㡫 <  ।> ⮫騭  , ᮢ 稪, ᮢ  ⠢  ⥬ ETC.  <ਢ⭮>  <࠭ 筮 ଠ樨>    㯮.   ᯮ⥫쭮 ४    [John Judge], ⮡    稭. <ਢ⭮   ஡>,- ⢥⨫ :

  ⠪, 室  饭樮쭮 ,  ࠩ ,  ⭮襭 ஭ ⥬ ᡮ ஦ ⥦. ਢ⭮   饭樮쭮 ஡.     ⮬,   ஢쭠 ⥬. ᫨,  襬 , ஡ ,    ⢮  ⮩ ணࠬ  ᯮ짮 ࠤ樮 ⮤ .   㬠,   ஡ , 祬  ।묨 ⠬.[67]

᪮࡭,  ਪ᪮ ࠢ㤨 ᮣᨫ  ,    㣨 稭. 26  1997     [Colleen McMahon] ⠭,    ।⠢ ଠ  ६饭   樨.  ⮣  ॡ  樨 ⠭ 㤠  祭 ⮩ ଠ樨, ,   , ᫨誮 ᪮뢠  ⢨.  㬥஢  ⥬,  ६饭 楢 E-ZPass  ᫥, ⮬ ஭  ⠪   㡫筮 㯭.[68]

ଠ  ⮭宦    ⥬ ⮢ ⥫䮭 裡,   ﭭ ᫥ ⮭宦 㡮, ⮡ 室騥 맮 ⨣ ⮢.  1997  British Telecom ஢ ࠧࠡ  쭮 ⥫䮭,  । 뢠  न 뢠饣  筮  9 ஢. <㤭 ⥯     ࠡ   묨, 室  殮; ६饭  㣮 ⠪   ᫥>,-  㧨 ᮮ頫  , 㡫  Electronic Telegraph.[69]  ࠬ ࠧ ਪ᪮ 㦡 ᯠᥭ 911  2001   ⮢ 裡  뫨 ᯥ 㦥 ⮭宦 60%  ⥫䮭  । 150 ஢.    㣨   ⮭宦,  ଠ   ᯮ짮  ࠧ묨 楫ﬨ.   ⮫쪮  ॥ ᫠ 設 ᪮ன    ⮬쭮 ਨ -    訢  ଠ  ⮢ ஢  ⢫ 訢  ࠬ ⨢-஧᪭ ய⨩.

 室  ਢ⭮ ६饭    ஭ ᪮ ࠭.  407  ਮ 㤮 ᫮ ⥬ ⮬᪮ ⠢ ⮢ 栬 ⮬,  ᨬ  ⢠ , ஥  ஥堫  ⢥ ࠫ. ⥬ 墠뢠 ࠦ  ⮬   . ⮨ ஥ 뢠  ।     ॣ樨 ⮬:  ⪠   ॣ  த.




஭ ᡮ ஦ ⥦


 믨᪠ ࠢ ண Orlando - Orange County Fxpressway 뢠  । ⮬  ⥬  ࠫ . । ⮬ ᫥   ᨢ ஭ ⥣, ࠧ頥  ஢ ⥪   ࠬ ⮬. ᬮ    ⥬ E-Pass ࠧࠡ⠭  ⮬᪮ ᡮ ஦ ⥦,  ⠪  ᯮ짮  筮 ᫥ ᪮ ⮬, ᫥ 㣭 設   ᫥  묨 㣠.  饬     ᯮ짮 ⠪   ⢫ થ⨭. ⮬᪨ ⥬ ᡮ ஦ ⥦ - ⮥  ਢ⭮ ଠ樨. ᬮ  , 㡫 㦤 楫 ᯮ짮   ࠪ᪨  ஢. [ࠧ 믨᪨  ।⠢ Orlando - Orange County Expressway Authority]




     


୮, ᠬ    ᥣ -  ᮢ㯭 web-࠭  ୥. <ᥬ ⨭>   ⮫쪮 ୮᪨ ࠦ, ୠ   ४ ᥢ த樨,   室 ⠪ ࠧ⥫쭮 ⢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨:  譨 ࠭窨, ᮮ饭 ஭   㡫樨  㯯 ⥩.     ⮬᪨ ᫥  ᪠ ࠧ祭, 砩 ਧ   㣨  ⥭樠쭮 業 ଠ樨.
  뢮  ᥬ୮ ⨭ 㤥, ᫥⢨ ९⥫ ਧ᪮ 㭨   [Rick Gates], ᮢ ᫥ ⥩ ୥   .  ᥭ 1992   ᮧ Internet Hunt,[p18] <騪>, 筮 ᪨饣 ଠ  .  ᪨ 뫨 ࠢ  ஧ ⮣䨩  ⥮஫᪨ ⭨  ⥪⮢ 祩  . ᪠⥫ 짮 ᮡ ୮ । ⥪३,    ६ 뫨 祭 ஡ ᮧ 㤮 <ࠢ筨 ୥>.

  1993   訫 ⢨  㣮 த. ᭮ 楫 뫮     ଠ樨  祫    ஭ .
 祭  㯯  32 ᪠⥫ ᮡࠫ 148 ࠧ ࠣ⮢ ଠ樨    ⮭ [Ross Stapleton].[70]  稣᪮ 㭨 ᮮ騫,  ⮭  ⥯   ᪮      ଠ⨪.  ਧ᪮ 㭨 ᮮ騫,     ⥯   ࠢ ଠ樮묨 ⥬.  ଠ樮 業  ਪ᪮ ⢠ ஭ [US Military's Defense Data Network (DDN) Network Information Center]  ⥪騥  ।騥    ⥫䮭 ⮭. 祭  Gopher-ࢥ[p19] ७樨 <ᨮ   ଠ⨪  樠 ⢥⢥> [Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility]  ᮮ騫,  ⮭    㯠     ⨪ ࠢ   ஭ ᫥ [Office of Scientific and Weapons Research] ࠫ쭮 ࠧ뢠⥫쭮 ࠢ .

  業 ଠ 㯯 ᬮ ᮡ  㡫権, ᤥ ᠬ ⮭. ᪠஢ ᮮ饭, ᫠   ᯨ᮪ 뫪 COM-PRIV ( ஭    ࠧ 饭 ᠬ ਢ⭮), 㯯 㧭,  ⮭ ᯮ 樮 ⥬ OS/2    䠪-. 㯯 㧭 ⠪,  ⮭ 㤭砫  द᪨ 㭨⮬,   -஬  ⠫  <ଠ樮 >.  㧭,  ⮭ ᠭ  Arlington Journal, Chronicle of Higher Education  Prodigy.   童 ਪ᪮ 樠樨 ࠧ ᫠⨪ [American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, AAASS].  童᪨   Cleveland Freenet  #ak287.

 ।᫮  ⥧ᠬ 樨 ⮭ <ᮭ   ࠭ > [Personal Computing in the  Community] ᫥⥫ 㧭,  த⥫ ⮭    ૨.   㣮 ᫠  ⮢ ᮮ饭  㤠 ⠭,         -  ३.  ⠪ ⪮  㯫 ⮭  II ७樨 <, ᢮  ਢ⭮> [Second Conference on Computers, Freedom and Privacy].[71]

<뢠    業 १ ᪠  楫,  ᪠,   㦠 讥 ⢮ ଠ樨  -, ஥   ,  ᫨ ࠭ ⮫쪮 ᢮ 㯭묨 㡫묨 ﬨ,- ᠫ      १ ᪠.-  ,     ⮬,  ࠢ ᮮ饭  ᯨ᪨ 뫪  㯯 ⥩.   ᢮    ଠ樮 ࠭⢮ ,  ,   ᪠뢠  ࠭祭 ᨨ  [⮩] ⥬, 㤥 㯭   ६>.

⨢ 䥪, 騩  짮 쭮  , 砥  ⮬,      ଠ  祫  㭨   . ਬ,  䥢ࠫ 1998   ஡   ୥ ᫮⠭ <Tom and Shirle>. ᪮ ⥬ HotBot 諠 ᫮ <>  1833334 ࠭,  ᫮ <and> -  63502825 ࠭.  ᫮ <Shirle> 諮 ⮫쪮  333 ࠭,  ࠧ <Tom and Shirle> - ⮫쪮  ,    뫨 ﬨ  , ᠭ   1993-.

<  ⭮ 㤨 ⢮ ଠ樨, ஥  ந    ᬮ ,- ᪠ ⮭,   ࠫ     ᠭ ⮩ .-    ᪠,  -    ६ ⮣ ᪠  ॢ>.  ⮭ ᠫ,   -    맢 ⢮  䠪,    ᢮    ࠡ⮤⥫  ⠪ ⢥ ⢥ 㬮. < ⮫쪮  ६,  -    ࠡ: ",   ᤥ?">
,  ਬ⥫  ⮬ ᪥ 뫮 ,   ᡮ ஡ ଠ樨  祫 ⮫쪮    筨 ⠫  祬- . ᫥  筨 ଠ樨 㯥  ᯮ짮 ন ४ ᪮ ⥬ ⨯ Yahoo, Lycos  AltaVista[p20] ᤥ  祭  ᮡ ⠪ ஡ .  筮,  ࢨ,  ᮡ DejaNews[p21]  HotBot, אַ ४ ⠪ .




 㡫 


⨭   ஭ , 㯯 ⥩     ࠧﬨ 㡫 . 設⢮ , 訢  ᢮   ࠭⢥, ࠭   稭  ⠪ .     宦    㣨, நᨬ -  祫᪮ ਨ.  諮 㡫   﫨. 筮,    ᠭ,    뫮  ⠪-  , ᫨   뫨 㯭. ࠦ ଥ  㯨  த᪮ ᮡ࠭,    ᠫ  ⮪,  १  , ᫨ - ⥫   諮 ⮣ ଥ,    襫  ਠ ⮣ 㯫, ᮡ ᫨  ଥ ॥堫    砫  , 㯨 ணࠬ⮬  Microsoft. 쬠, ᠭ    50-, 60-, 70-  80-  XX , 筮, 뫨 㡫  ᥮饣 ७,  ⭮,   ⨫    , ந஢  ᤥ ﭭ 㯭묨   窨  .

   㡫     । ⢥ ⫨  ᥣ,  뫮 ࠭.      ᪠  ᬮ७ ⥭樠 ࠡ⮤⥫, 祫,     ⮫쪮  﫠 ࢠ ,  ,   稭  ।.  ⮫쪮  ᤥ ,  ࠧ   ஫  :    㦥 .
  ᪠ ਢ    ⨯ ᮫⭮ ⭮. 祭  ᯮ짮   ୥  ⠢ ᯨ᪮ , 祭  㯮ॡ , ⭠ ᥡ ᪨ ᪠뢠ﬨ      ࣠樨 . ⮭ : <- 㤭 㦡  ࠡ  ᮭ 祭  ᪠: "ᬮ,   ᪠,  ᪠[p22] -  .     ঠ   , ,    ࠧ?    ।⠢ ⨫ ,   ࠢ 襬 १.    த    饣 ".    ⢥ ⥫쭮,  ன  ⥫  . ᫨  - ,    祭 ஦>.

 筮  ப 㯭 ⮩ ଠ樨  ᮧ   樠 䨫, १  ᬮ ன ⮫쪮 祭 ⮩稢  ࠭. ⢮ ⮩ ଠ樨  ᠬ㢥७  梨묨  ᥬ  ७ ⠪. 騥   ࠭   ஢ 㡫   ࠭ ᠬ 訥  ન ᪠뢠 , -  롮 .




Waste. com


12  1999  Boston Herald 㡫  ࢮ ࠭    <Waste.com>.[72]   ஡ ᢥ頫 १ ஢ Herald ᫥, 饭 祭 ᯮ짮 ୥ 㤠⢥묨 㦠騬,  ⠪ 㣨 祭  ୥, 稢 ⥫騪. 뫮 ⠭,  ⭠ , ॣ஢  㦡 㤨 , ᯮ짮  ᯥ樨 ⠬  ᯮ⨢ ய,  﫮 襭  . ୠ 㦨,  ⭠ , ਭ MassEd.net, ⭮ ࣠樨, ᨤ஢襩   ୥ ⥫  誮, 뫠 ᯮ짮 < த web-ᠩ ᥪ㠫쭮 ᮤঠ>. 㦨,  ⭠  ⢠ ⢥ ࠡ <ᯮ짮  㯪  த ﯮ᪨ ᪨ 䨫쬮,   "ᨫ쭨", ᫠ ᨫ>. 祭,  짮⥫ ୥  ᤥ⠬ ᫠ 324 ᮮ饭  ⥬ ⥫ ,  <ᮭ>.  뫨 㦥 㤥, ᯮ騥 ।⠢塞  祡묨 ﬨ   ୥     ⮢  ਮ⥭   㣨 樭.

室 ਠ  ᫥ ࠪ᪨  뫨 祭 ⥬ ᪠  ୥   ᪮ ⥬ Deja.com, 娢饩  ᮮ饭  㯯 ⥩  ஭ ᪨ . ᬮ    ᮮ饭  ୥    ,  ⮬    㯮.

  맢  ॠ 樠 ,  ਫ,  㦥  ⨪ ᯮ짮 ୥    -  楫 饭 楫 ᯮ짮 ୥.   ࠧ   娢 ୥  ஫ ᯮ짮 쬨  ⥬.

  㦥 㯮⮣  1993   Internet Hunt   祭 筮 砭: < ⪮,     㭨 㦥.  祬- 宦  ⭮ 㦤,  ࠧ  ⥫쭮    >.

,    㯥 ᥣ , , 㤥 㯥   祭 ⨫⨩.  ந室 ⮬,  ⥪  ஢ ଥ  ७, 祭 ⥭    . ᬮ    ,  ஬  ࠭  ⥪   ண   ࠢ, 㦥   ᯮ, ଠ  ᭮, ᭮  ᭮.




 設 ᮧ ⨢  


 Hewlett-Packard, ந , 14 ५ 1999  㡫  Wall Street Journal ࠭ ४.   ࠭  ୮- ,  ஬  ࠦ  㤮 ࠦ   ⮬ ।. 設 堫 .  ᨫ:

  ᫥   .  蠣 ।.   ⠢ ᢮ 樮 <>  ࠦ.  ⠪ 㬠.      த,   㢥७: ᯮ e-service. -? 奬 ᭮,    襩   砥 ० < ࠭祭>,   設 ࠧ ᪮  105  . , 筮,  ⠥  ᤥ.     設 諥 ᨣ  ࢨ,    ᠭ, ।०   ந室饬. 室      ⮣ ,  뢠   ⮫  ࠢ  , ⮡ ᤥ .    ᯥ    ⠫  륧 ஦ 襣 ,   設 稭  ⥫䮭: <  ஥?>  ।⠢ 㣨  ᯮ짮 ୥,    㦥 諮  ࠬ  web-ᠩ⮢. ନ <㣠> 襫  㣮 ७. ।  ਨ ୥  祭.     ࠡ  ᥬ୮ ⨭.  ⮣ ୥ 㤥 ࠡ  .

www.hp.com/e-services

The next E. E-services. Hewlett-Packard.

 ⨢  Hewlett-Packard   祭 ஦⥫쭮 饥, 饥  . 祬 ஥  <> 奬 HP   ॢ ᪮ ⮫쪮 ,    த⥫? 祬 設  த⥫,     ? 祬 客   ।०  ᭮ ⥫? 祬 த ⮬  砥   ᪮⭮ ०, ⮡   ᭮ 㫨஢ ࠭  ࠭ᬨ? , ᫥  ࠧ ୥  ⮬ ⮬᪨ ᭨   ॢ襭 ᪮ אַ  襣 ᪮ ,  ॡ  ⢠ ⥫    樨,    ⠭.

祬 , ꥪ ⮩ ଠ樨, ஫஢ ଠ樮 ⥭   ᥣ譨 㯪?




  ଠ樮 ⮪


  設,   ⪨ ᪨  ⥫㠫 ⥬ ࠢ   -   ।⠢  ஧ ਢ⭮.   ६   ஢  ࠭ ଠ樨 㢥稢  60-70%  , ᥫ   ᥣ  1,6%. ன ६,  ⠭  ᢮ ,   訩 業   ⢨ 㤥 䨪஢ ᥬ୮ ன.

  ? 㦥  ⮨ । 騬,  ஬      ⠭   ,  ஬   ᥪ  ࠭  ஧ 窠? 㤥     襩 ⥯ ࣠   ஭  ᥤ, 襩 ᥬ    設,       ᮫⭮ ஧筮 ⢥? .    ࠢ 롮.     ६ ,    ந ,  ஬ 筠 ଠ 㢠  ࠭  ᥪ.

ᯮ 砩  ઠ.  䠪 祭 ୠ⮬ ᥩ  થ  ⥪  ⮫᪮ 宫 뫠 樨஢  蠭.  ਫ,  ᥭ  ᬥ ,   ᮡ⢥    ᯮ짮  吝 ,  ⥫ த ઠ   뢠. , ᨬ  ⨢ 蠭,  १ ⠫ ᭮,  砩  મ   . <[ 蠭] 뫮 㯮 ⢮ ਬ஢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨   ப 䨫쬠,  ⪨ ᯮ짮  ଠ  ⥫⢠,    娬 த⥫,    ⢥稪    ⥫⢥  ॡ ⠫ ,   ॡ   䨫쬠, ᬮ७ >,- ᮮ頫 ⢮ ࣮.[73]
蠭  諨 .   ⥫쭮 ᨨ  ਫ,  १  ᠫ Video Privacy Protection Act[p23]1988 (18 USC 2710). ᭮ , <⠢騪   ப 䨫쬮,  諥      뫮 㥬 ᮭ ଠ   >, ࠢ襬 ப 䨫,  । ⮬ ࠦ ⢥⢥  ࠧ 2500 ஢, ࣠ , 稢 㣠   㣨 প,    室묨. ⨢ 㭪⠬ ப 䨫쬮 ।⠢ ଠ   䨫쬮,   ࠫ ( ᪫祭 砥,     ⠭ 㤠),       ப. ⠭ ࠧ ࠦ᪮ ⢥⢥,  ࠭ ஡,  ᥣ    ᪮  襭 ਢ⭮: 室 뫮 ,  ᥭ .  ⮣,    ॡ   ,  ,   ᮢ㯭 ਧ   ⭥   ⠪ .

  砥  1988   ਢ  ⢥ : 栬 㭪⮢ ப -० ࠧ蠫 ࠭ ॣ樮  ᫥  ,  ॡ 易⥫쭮 㭨⮦  ᥩ.  ⠪  頫 ⨬  ந  ᭮ 㠫  ॣ஢ ᨢ ଠ樨,  ⥭樠쭮  㦨  襭 ਢ⭮ 筮.   , Video Privacy Protection Act   䥪⨢.  襭 १砩 ।. ਪ ,    ப  ࠢ訩 䨫   ⢥    । .

Video Privacy Protection Act  ,  祬  ⭨  ᢮ ਫ  1960- : ᢮ 뭮  ஢쭮 ਭ ⠭ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮     ਢ⭮ ॡ⥫.   USA Today । ᢥ頫  ⠪: <쪮  쭮  ஢쭮 ᮣᨥ ।⥫쭮,  ॠ쭮    ࠡ⠥.  ॠ쭮 ⢨ 㤠⢥ ॣ㫨஢ ਢ  ⮬,  祭   ࠪ᪨ 祣     ࠢ ॡ⥫  ਪ᭮ ⭮ >.[74]

  ᮡ ஬ ꥬ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨   ᢮ ᥤ ⥫쭮.   ᠬ 䠪,  ଠ ᮡ࠭,  ᫥,     ࠢ   㯭  ⢥, த  ⮬ 뭪  ᯮ짮  થ⨭ 楫.    <࠭  ⮫>. ண ⥫⢮    筮 ଠ樨 ⨬㫨  㯠  ⠪.

㣮    ᯮᮡ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ 砥,   ।,    ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨. ਬ,  ஥ -⥬,  ࠭ ᮢ   ଠ    業ࠫ  ,  ந  ⥬.  ⥬ ॠ   ᬠ-  ᯮ   ஦ ⥦ <஭ 筮>. -  ⠪ ⥬  ணࠬ஢  ࠭ ଠ樨  짮 묨 ࠫﬨ ⮫쪮  筮 ᯮ짮 ⥫  ணࠬ஢  㭨⮦ ⮩ ଠ樨.   ᯫ । ⥬   ᬠ-  襢, 祬 ᮧ  ᯫ 業ࠫ ⥬    ஢.  ᮦ,    - , ⮬,   孮 ᫮ ᭨ 栬, ਭ騬 襭.

, ନ஢  ࣠ ࠦ᪨ ꥤ    㤠  ⠫ ண  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮. ᬮਬ ਬ :  1980-  쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ ந ᫮ ⥬ ஭  ஥  ண. ᪮ ᫥ ७ ⥬ ⥫ 砫  饭,   ஡ ᮮ頫,     ஥,-    ॢ.  ⮣,  ⥬   ᯮ짮  ᫥  祫  ᪨ 楫, ᮡ ᫥ ।  1997    ࠢ , ࠦ ॡ  ⥬.[75]
訡  ਭ⨨ 襭 ᥣ   ᫥⢨.   ᮧ,   ଠ   ᯮ짮 ⨢  ᠬ,  稭 ᮯ⨢ -  ।७ ⪠뢠 ।⠢ ଠ,  ᯥ樠쭮   ⥬  . ਬ,  짮⥫ ୥   ஡ 襭 , <ᯠ>, ᯮ ᪠  ஭   ᢮ web-࠭   ᠭ ᮮ饭  㯯 ⥩.[p24]   ᯮ 㬠  諥 ࠢ쭮 ᠭ   ᪥  ୠ.  筮  ᯮ    죨  । ,  ᫨   ᮢᥬ 㤮 . ᫨   뢠 묨, ਬ   ७ 孨.





5

  



 孮 襩 ,  㡨        ⮢ ᨫ ࠧ뢠 ᯮ冷 ஥. ஥  ࠧ稢 楫 ᮭ , 訢 ன  ᥭ஢, ꥤ    ,  㤥 , 뢠  ࠭ ଠ  ᥬ ந室饬. ஥  ॢ饭     㬥  ᮧ 쭮 ⥪ ந室 䠪⮢.

  50-  60-  XX     ࠦ᪨ ࠢ 뫨 ᯮ 訢 ࠢ⥫⢮    ᮢ.  ᫥     ଠ  <诨᪨ >,  ᫮ 㤮  ⠭樮 訢, 묨 ࠤ।稪, 騬  㪠  䮭  묨 䮭, 騬  樨 ⥪ 㧭,  祬   饭.  ᥣ ⠭  ᭥,  ॠ쭠 ஧ ਢ⭮ 室   訢  ,   襩     ࠭. , ॠ ஧ ।⠢ ﭭ ਭ ⢥ , 㯭   ண ᤥ  ᢮  .

 ᫥騥 50    ࠭騩 ⥢ ਭ ७ ࠧ   ।⠢  ⮬,    < 㡫>. ,   ᬥ ⠢  㪢쭮 ਭ ᫮ <⢥ >.  諮 設⢮ ⢥  뫨  ᠬ  ਢ묨. ண㫨  ⢥  த᪨ 㫨栬  ᥤ  㣮  થ,  頫 ᥡ 饭묨, ,     뢠.  ﭭ ਭ   ।⠢  אַ ⨢.  ࠢ ,  ਢ⭮ ࠭    ,    ந ⠪  । ⭮⥫쭮 ⢥ .  祬   ந室饥 䨪, 뢠,      ᢥ  室, ⥬  室 뢠    ⢥ .

 饬 ⢥ 㤥  ,  ந室  ⢥ .




,   !


   ⥭     襩   ᬮ,      뢠 ஭⠬  ⭨.  ⮩ ⨭   ᢮  ஢ . ୮    ࠦ  ࠧ ,   ,  蠯 줠, ᤢ묨  .     ᨢ ,  ᪠  뢠 ९ 㡨  ᪨ 祭.

 <:     ⭨  뤥 ५> 饭 让 ମ WorldSat, ᯮ  ਮ ().    ⮫쪮 ⢥ত  ⢥ ⭨ ,    㢫祭 ᪮ ଠ樥.  ᮧ ᪨ , த ᮧ WorldSat,  㡮 ﭨ  饥 ਢ⭮.  .  室 -.

  㢨  WorldSat    設⮭᪮ 㭨.  襫, ⮡ 㯨  .    ᬠਢ 窨,  ⥬ 楫  - ⨭  ⭨,  ஬ <>   ⠪ 뫨 ।⠢   ᬮ ࠫ, , ய  ୮ ਪ.     :        ᬠਢ ᮧ ମ NovaGraphics  < >,  ।  த   .

 祭 ᫥     室   , ⮡  ࠦﬨ.  ᫮  .  筮 ,  㯨  <>  ᨫ   ⥭.  ⮬  易  WorldSat, ⮡ 㧭  ⮫쪮   ᤥ ,   稭,  ன ଠ 﫠 ⮩ த樥.

WorldSat 뫠 ᭮  1986  ⮬ ⥩ [Robert Stacy], ᨮ , 㢨訬 ⭨ ࠦ     ਮ.  ਮ  매ࠢ ᫥ ⭮ . ஢,   ,   騩    ᢮ ० ᨨ, ⥩ 訫 ࣠ ,  ᮧ    ࠦ   த.




 < >  WorldSat


饭    ᥧ ᭥ ஢, ᢥ饭 24-ᮢ ᮫楬, ⠪      뢠 ஭⠬, 訬   㦥 冷.       ஬ த  ᮮ⢥ ⢨⥫쭮, 祬 ⤥ ᭨.  ࠦ, ᮧ WorldSat,  ஬  ஢ ⢠ ࠦ  ⭨   ୮ ࠡ⪨. [ࠦ  ।⠢ ମ WorldSat]

WorldSat 稫 設⢮ ࠦ ᯫ⭮. 室묨 묨  ਨ ஢ <> ⠫ ࠦ  ⥮஫᪨ ⭨ 樮쭮 ࣠樨  祭   ⬮ [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA], ࡨ  室   820. 㫥   ࠦ,  筮    ஭ ࠦ 襩   . ᯮ  ᭨, ᤥ ⭨  ࠧ 祪  । 㤠,  ᮧ ८᪮᪮ ࠦ 孮 .  ଠ ᯮ  ન ५,   룫廊  嬥ୠ.   ५ ᪮   ⥬ ஢ ⭨   ᫥.
< ࠦ 뫮 孮᪨ ॢ, ⠪  ᯮ짮 ஬ ꥬ >,- ᪠뢠    [Dr. Emery Miller], -१  ࠧ   WorldSat.[76]    㣮 ࠦ  ࠭ , <  ᬮ> ⮨  쪨  祪, 뢠 ᥫﬨ.  ⨭ 뫠 ᮧ  ࠧ襭   , ..  ᥫ  ࠩ  ।⠢   ஭   .  ।⠢ ᮡ  ࠢ   㦭  40. [77]  頤  127796494^2.  ࠧ,  ࠦ   WorldSat   128  ᥫ.[p25]  ᫮  ,  ࠭  128  ᥫ  , ᯮ짮  ᮧ , ॡ ࠭ ࠧ஬   .  1994 ,   ᮧ   , WorldSat ⮫㫠  ࠭祭 ந⥫쭮 ᠬ  ஢  .  - 祭 讥 .

 ࠧ ࠦ    WorldSat  ࠪ᪨  ᬮ   - 㪮⢮୮. ⨥ 40  ஢  90-ᠭ⨬஢  砥,    ᠭ⨬ ᮤন 437.  ᠬ , ᫨  쬥 㢥⥫쭮 ⥪  ᬮ  ,  ᯮ 㯭 த, ,   㢨,- 쪮 ᭮⮥ 誮, 㦥  .  窨 - ⠭ 뫨, 吝, ண  ஥. த   梥.

 筮   ࠦ ᥩ .  ,  ⢮   ࠦ  ⭮ ࠪ. < 㦨,  訩  뢠   ᢮ >,-  .       ᪠: <  ! ᬮ  !>

 WorldSat  砫. ᫨    ௥,   50 ஢,  㦥 ᥩ   :    ⭨ ⮣ 襣 , ᤥ ᠬ ᮢ६ 诨᪨ ⭨.   砫 1980- 묨 ᬨ᪨ ঠ 뫨 ।ਭ ᨫ  ॢ饭 ⭨ ⮣䨩   ࠢ⥫⢥ 㬥  뭮 ⮢, 㯭  ⮫쪮 ,    ॡ⥫.    ਬ  ⨧樨 ᮢ६ 孮.




  


  ⨫ ᢮  诨᪨ ⭨  1959 . 襭 ᥪ ஥   Corona,  , ⠫ ࢮ ਪ᪮ ᬨ᪮ ணࠬ.  ⭨ Corona  ᭠饭 ᯥ樠묨 ꥪ⨢ ᮪ࠢ ࠧ襭, ᯥ樠쭮 ⮯,  뤥ন ᬨ᪨ 宫,  ᪠묨 ⠬,   뫨   ਠ  .   ࠧ ᯮᮡ  1,5 .  砫,    ꥪ, 訩 ࠧ   1,5 : ⮬, ⪠  ⭠ ࠪ⭠ ⠭,-   ࠧ祭  ᬮ.

ࠬ ꥬ 孮 - ᠬ 祢 ᯮ짮 ⭨-诨,   ⮣ ⮫쪮 ஦.

襭  1,5  﫮 ஢ ⭮⥫쭮 ᫮ ᫥. ਬ, ⨪  ࠧ ⨯ ᠬ⮢  ᨫ⠬,  뫮 祭    .     ᫮ 室  મ 設, ⮡ । ਬ୮ ᫮ ࠡ  । ,   䠡ਪ  <᭠ ଠ>.

२⢮ ⭨ । ᠬ⠬-ࠧ稪 112 砫  ⮬,   뫨 ᯨ묨  﫨  ﭭ   ࠢ 訬 ﬨ. ⭨ ।⠢﫨 ⨦ 㣨 ⮤ ⥯ 筮  塞.  ਪ᪨   짮, 襩 . 筮 ⮣     ⮪,  뫮  ᥬ ஡ﬨ ᫥ ࠧ⨥ ஬諥  , ६饭     ᯥ  ࠭.  1996 ,  ஥ Corona  ᥪ祭, Technology Review ᠫ:

< 1960  1972   ࠬ ஥ Corona  ࡨ   뢥 121 ⭨, 訩 800  ࠦ   689  ஢ >.[78]

⭨   蠫    ᮣ襭.  ந室襥  । 饭,  ⢥   । 뫮 㡫.  ᫨   ࠢ,   ࠪ᪨ 稭  ࠦ. ᪨   ⮢ ⨢  ⮢ ᠬ⮢ U2  1960 ,   ᬮ ᡨ ᠬ-ࠧ稪, 㥬  ᮬ [Gary Powers].   ⭨-诨  뫮 , ஬    宦  饭. ⠢ ଠ쭮    ⮫  㤠⢥ ᨫ.

 祭 ⨫⨩ ࠧ ᯮᮡ ⭨-诨  諠    ࠢ  ࠦ᪨ ࡨ⠫묨 ꥪ⠬.     ⮣஢    ࠧ襭  ॡ. ⭨ Landsat 5  Landasat , 饭  1982  1984 ,    㤮, 襥 ⮣஢ 孮   30-஢ ࠧ襭   ࠧ ᯥࠫ .[79]  砫쭮 楫 ᮧ  ⭨ 뫮 ᫥ த ᮢ ( ⮬    樠쭮  - 孮᪨ ⭨  ᫥ ᮢ  [Earth Resources Technology Satellites]), ࠦ  Landsat ⠪ ᯮ짮  ਭ ⬮  ᪨ ᫮, । ஢ 吝, ᪠ ,   ᥢ ୮  ᠬ , 筮,  ᮧ ஢. ⭨ Landsat ஫   ⪮  孮  18 .   ਮ ᭨  Landsat, 墠뢠騥   160^2,  3500 ஢, 稢 ᪨  ਮ⥭   .

।⠢塞 Landsat 30-஢ ࠧ襭 쭮 室   ᥢ ୮   .  Landsat  祭  室  ਭ  ᫥⢨ ⥫쭮 祫. 設⢮ ண    ࠧ  30 ஢, ⮬     Landsat.

   ࠭, ⨢  1986   ᪨ ⭨-诨   SPOT 1 (SPOT - ᮪饭  ࠭᪮ Satellite Pour I'Observation de la Terre - ⭨    ).   ⭨ SPOT 뫨 㤮  ࠬ.    뫠 ୮-, 襩 ࠧ襭  10 ஢.   뢠 ,   ࠪ ࠦ  ࠧ襭  20 ஢. ࠦ      ᪮஢  祭 梥⭮ ⨭ ᮪ ࠧ襭.   諨    ,  ⭨ SPOT 1, 訩     ਥ ࠨ,    ୮᪮ ⮬ ⠭樨. ᪨  뢠 䠪 ਨ,   뫠  ⨬ ⮣.

室  ࡨ 830 ஢  孮 , ⭨ SPOT 1  SPOT 3  墠뢠 孮   26 .  ࠧ     ࣮,   ⮣ ⪨ ਭ 60  117 ஢, 室騥  ࠥਥ  ⭨. ࠦ   ।  ⭮ ० ।⢥  ,  ਭ  ⠭樥 SPOT.

㯭訬 ⠬ SPOT  <> ⢠ - ࠧ뢠⥫ 㦡   㣨 ࠭. 楢 ४ ⮪ SPOT 뢠 ⭨ ࠦ, ᤥ  ६   ᨤ᪮ .   ᭨ ࠦ ᥪ⭠  ⠭,   ᪮쪨 ⪮ 㯯 ஥.  ᫥饩 ⮣䨨    ᠬ ஥,        ⭠. < 梥    砥 >,-   ᭨⥫쭠 . 宦 ࠦ ⢠   ⥫   뫨  ᨫ   ५ 1999   樨 १⮢ ஢ ࡠ  ᮢ <⭨᪮ ⪨>.  ⨬ ࠦ  稫 ⢥ প न஢ ࡨ.

< 1986 , ࠧ ᫥ ᪠ ⥬,   ⠫,   । 樮쭮 ᭮  ਢ⭮. "襩 ਢ⭮ 襫 ",- ਫ >,- ᪠뢠  ᮭ [Clark Nelson],   થ⨭  㭨 SPOT.[80]  諨 , ⨪ 稫   冷 ࡨ⠫ ,    ࠢ⥫⢮ 稫 ᯮ짮 .

SPOT த ⮣䨨  ४஢ , ਭ  㦠饩 ।  ।⠢ 㠫쭮    ଠ樮 ⥬. ଥ  ᯮ짮 ᭨ SPOT    ᢮ ﬨ:  祬  50 業⮢   [0,404]   ।,  ᥢ 㦤  ਣ樨  㤮७. , ᯮ騥 ᥣ  ࠦ, <த ଥ-쬥,-  ᮭ.-  : " ⠫  ࠪ.  㦭 ᮢ६ ஢ ࠡ⪠ ࠦ  ⭨">.  㦥 १ ᪮쪮  ⭨ ࠦ ⠭  㬥⮬  ஡.

 ࢮ室栬 ᫥ .  ண ⠭ McDonald's  KFC 砫 ᯮ짮 ⭨ ⮣䨨  롮  ࠧ饭 ᢮     , .. ⠬,  㭨樯    뢠 筮,  ண 㦥 ஥     . ⭨ ⮣䨨   ᯮ  樨 -⮢.

 -த⮬, ᮧ   SPOT,  MetroView - 襭 ⭨ ࠦ ᭮ த ,     ᯮ짮  ணࠬ  ᮭ쭮  ⨯ Adobe PhotoShop. ࠦ ᥣ ய த  業  400  600 ஢,   <祩>   100 ஢. SPOT ⠪ ࠥ  ஫  ।  ࠧ饭  ⠭権 ஢ ⮢ 裡  ࠧ饬 . ࠦ  祭 ஡ ,  ९  ⭮, ᯮ ண, ⭮ ன   . < ᠬ ⥫쭮 ࠢᨥ, ஥     ᫥ 11 ,-  ᮭ.-    ,   㦭,     죨, ⮡   . 墠⨬   ப   ?  ।⠢塞 祭 ஡  㤠 ࠩ,   [㭨樮 ] ᯥ稢  ⥫㭨ﬨ>.




   ⭨ 


ࠦ ਨ   嬥୮ ᯥ⨢  ᮧ  ᭮ ⮣䨩, 祭  ࠭᪨ ⭨  SPOT ( ᪫祭 ᮢ 㤮 㭪 ࠢ ). ,   祭  ࠦ, 뫨 饭   ணࠬ, ࠧࠡ⠭ ମ Qualcomm Inc. (-,  ୨),  ᯮ짮    ⠭ 襪  ⠭権 ⮢ 裡. ᯮ  ⥬  , Qualcomm ᬮ ᮪ 室 ᫮  ⠭権  83  80,  3  ஢  ந⥫⢥ ⠭権  1,5  ஢  ஢. [⮣䨨  㭮  ।⠢ SPOT Imaging]
SPOT ࠧࠡ⠫ ⠪   ⠭ Eaglevision.[p26] ࠡ⠭     १砩    ,  ⠭ ⮨  ५ ஬ 3,5 ,   ।⢥ ਭ ᨣ  ⭨,   㧮  ࠬ  㤮   ࠡ⪨. ⥬   ࠦ  ஫饣   ⭨ SPOT  ந ஡  㦠饩 ⭮. ⥬  ⠪ ந 嬥 ,   ⥬    ७  ᯮ짮  ⮢  ᯠ⥫쭮 樨  ⠭.

SPOT ᥣ    讣 ⢠ ,  த   ଠ樨  ࠢ⥫⢥ ⭨,   ᢮ ᮡ⢥.  1984  ௮ Lockheed Martin ਮ५  Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), 楫 ᮧ ன 뫠 樠 ਪ᪨ ࠢ⥫⢥ ⭨ Landsat.  1990-  Landsat 諠  ᯮ짮 ⭨-诨  ᮪ ࠧ襭. ࢮ砫쭮 Landsat 㤭砫  ࠢ⥫⢮ , ਮ ᪫ ࠢ  த ࠦ  ᪮ ⭨ IRS-1C,   饭   1985    ࠧ ᯮᮡ  5,8 .  1996  EOSAT 뫠 ਮ⥭ ᯮ  ࠤ  Space Imaging,  ⥯  ᠬ 訬 ⢮ ࠦ᪨ ⥫ ⭨  ࡨ.   ⨫ ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ⭨, 騩 ࠧ饩 ᯮᮡ  1 .

 㦤  ⭨ ࠦ ᮪ ࠧ襭? ࠪ᪨ , ⢥ত  ४ Space Imaging.   ᢮ 뭮   ᥫ᪮ 宧⢥, ࠢ⥫⢥ 㣠,  ᫥ 㦠饩 ।, ⮣䨨, 㭠 ।,  뭪 ⥫ ଠ樨   ।  ॡ⥫,   ᫥  ਢ    web-ᠩ :

    뢠    ॡ⥫᪮ 뭪,  ࠧ묨 ᥫ ᯮᮡ. ਥ஢  筮 ॡ⥫ த Space Imaging   ᯮ짮  ப ᯥ ਫ, 稭  祭  ࠧ祭  稢 襭 ஡  ᮭ쭮 樥.

⭨ ࠦ  । ᥣ  ࠧ襭, ஥  ࠭  뫮 㯭  ᪮ 뭪,  ।⠢ ࠭祭 ଠ   ⠬,  ࠤ樮   ।⠢﫨,  ⥯ ஡  ⭨ ࠦ.  Space Imaging -     ࠦ   ᠬ ࠧ த ⮢,  ᨬ ⮢, ᡮ୨ , ஢騪 ⢨, ࠭⥫ ࠭, 横, 䨫  ⢨, ࠧ१ , ⮢ ⪨  ⨭  ࠬ.[81]

,  ᭮稢 ४ ,   稫  ࣮ ⠢  ⫥  1997 .  ⠢, 饭 ᮢ६ 孮 , EOSAT ࠧ ४ , 뢠,   ࣠   ᯮ짮 ࠦ  ᪮ ⭨  5-஢ ࠧ襭  ᫥  ᢮ ࠦ.

筮,  㦡  ७ ᠬ  ⭮ ய  ந ᮡ⢥ ꥬ.  ᪮ ⭨ ⮣䨨 襢,  ⨢稢    ᯮ짮  ࠧ뢠⥫ ⢠,   ⠪  ᯮ짮   ࠦ᪨ ०,    ஢ .

 ⮩  ७樨  ⨫ , ᯮ஢ ⠬⮬ ᮢ  , ࠧࠡ⠢訬  1997  ⥬   묨  ᥫ᪮宧⢥묨 㣮ﬨ .  室  ⭨   ᯮ짮  譮    ⫨, ᫨  ଠ  ⭮ ⪥ ࠧ  10 .  ⭨묨 ࠦﬨ        .




     5-஢ ࠧ襭


   ᥬ ᮢ ॥堫  , ஥  㠫쭮 ஥   ਣத.  ⮣ ६  ந   , ந ᥩ  ᤥ 㣨 ,  ⨢  業  ,  ࠧ襭  㣨 믫. த᪠      樨, ⮬   ⠢ ᠬ   稫 ।⢠  .

 業਩ ।⠢ ࠭ ஡ த᪨ 権. 祭 ।⢠   , ࠧ⥫  㣨 ⥦ ⠢  ஢,     ࠢ  ॠ  㭨樯 ணࠬ.    祭 ।⢠?  ⮣  ᯮ짮 ।⠢塞묨 EOSAT IRS-1C 묨 5-஢ ࠧ襭.[82]

  孮   ᬮ ⮫쪮 ᥮ꥬ  ⮫쪮   ᯮ짮,  ⭨ ⮣䨨 ᮧ  ࠧ  孮,   楤⮢  祫᪮ ਨ.   1996  १ ⮭ ᥪ⨫ ணࠬ Corona, Argon  Lanyard, ⢥ ⠫ 㯭  860  ࠦ  孮, ᤥ  1960  1972 .[83]    ᠬ 業 ⥯ ࡠ, ᥭ 㦠饩 ।  ६ ᮢ᪮  ⥬ ࠢ ࠦ  ⥬ Corona 1960   ࠦ, ᤥ SPOT  IRS  1996-. ⥪ ⭨ ࠦ ⠭ ᢮ࠧ 設 ६.

쭥襥 த ⭨ ࠦ ᤥন  . ࢠ -  ⨪. ⭨ ࠦ ᮪ ࠧ襭    孮.  祭   ࠧ뢠⥫ ०  ᪨ ࠭稢   ⮩ 孮  ९⢮ ଠ쭮 ࠧ襭  ᯮ짮 ⮩  孮  ࠦ᪨ 楫.    SPOT  IRS, 㭪樮஢訥  । .

 ਢ窨 ⬨ 殮.  EOSAT/Space Imaging 稫 ࠧ襭   ᮡ⢥ ⭨   ࠧ饩 ᯮᮡ  1 ,   뫨  ⠪ 뢠 ᮣ襭  <஫ ⢮> [shutter control].   ६ - ।⥫쭮  ६  ⢨ - ਪ᪮ ࠢ⥫⢮   ⢮  EOSAT, ४ ⥬ ᠬ ⮪ ࠦ.   ਭ ࠭祭  ⭨ ⥬,  ⭮ ⨢ த ᭨ ᮪ ࠧ襭 ਨ ࠨ. ᬮ    ⥬ SPOT    ᤨ <஫ ⢮> ਪ᪮ ⢠ ஭,  ⠭ ࠭祭    ࠦ   ६:  ६   ᨤ᪮  SPOT ⪠ த ࠦ ⢠ ⥩,   ᪨஢ ६饭   ࠢ᪮ ஢, ,  ࠪ᪨   ᥩ ᬮ 㢨  ⮣䨨  ᯮ짮   ४஢ ᢮ .

 ࠭祭  ᠬ ⬮ . ᪮ ⭨ ᯮ 讥 㢥祭,  ᠬ 訥   ⬮, 맢 㬠,   ⥯묨 ⮪  ஬ ஫.  祭  ࠦ ॡ  ⮫쪮 ᮪筠 ⨪  ᫮ ࠡ⪠ ,   㤠. <  - ⥮᪨ ࠭祭,   ࠪ᪨ ?   ᪠, , ⭮, >,-    WorldSat, 騩  祬 20-⭨    ࠦ᪮ ਬ ⭨ ࠦ.   ⠪,  ᫨ ᬮ   ॠ筮,     ᬮ 㢨 ᪮᪨ ꥪ  ᬮ. ,  㣮 ஭, ﭭ  ᭮⥫   ⢮ ᢥ媠⢥ ⭨ ,  < ࠧ ⥪, ᠭ  ᨣ⭮ 窥:  ४ ,   ᫮ ᯮᮡ ⮬, ,  , ᮣ,   㬥  ᤥ.  饬,   । 孮᪨ ⥩>. ,  ࠪ᪨, ⬥砥 ,  ᫠ 뢠    ⨥ ࠧ襭: <   -  ⮫ ᮢ襭 ᫮>.  ⮣, ࠧ襭 ࠧ  , 祬 㯭    ࠦ, ..   㦭 ࠦ  㦭    ⮣஢ । ⮪    ,     .

 㦡, த騥 ⮨ଠ  ⭨,  ⢥     ଠ樨. ਬ, Microsoft TerraServer   ᬠਢ ⭨ ࠦ ᮪ ࠧ襭 ( 1,5 ) ࠪ᪨    . ,   㦭,-  㪠    . ࠭⢥ 墠  ॢ室: TerraServer 墠뢠    孮.  ᮦ,  ६ 䠪. ਬ,   1999   ᨫ ⭨ ⮣  ⠫  ਤ.

 ⭨ ⮣ ਤ,  , ᤥ ᮢ᪨ ࠧ뢠⥫ ⭨  1989 , த १ SPIN-2  㦥 १ ୥  Microsoft TerraServer  $13,95.  ⮩ ⨭, 饩 ࠧ襭 ਡ⥫쭮 1,2   ᥫ,  ࠧ稬 ஥, ண, ஦   讥  ⭮,   ண ⥯  . ᬮ  ,  ᥣ  䮣 ᮪ ࠧ襭 த ⮩  ࠧ  ⭮ ୠ⨢  ᫥, ⨭ 業 ⭨ ࠦ ,  ࣠    ᪮쪨 ࠦ, ᤥ १ ᪮쪮 ,   .  ᮪⢥ ࠦ, 㯭 १ ୥,   ᮧ   ਢ⭮  ६ 宦  饭. [ࠦ  ।⠢ Aerial Images, Inc.]

筮 㢥७ TerraServer 뤠 ⮣, ᤥ ⭨-诨   ६ . , , ᭨  ᤥ 30  1989 . ਤ  ⥫   ᫥  ,  ᮪⢥ ⮣ ਤ,     ୥  13 ஢ 95 業⮢,  ࠦ  .

᪮   ⮨  , ﭨ ⭨ ࠦ  ⢮ ந室  १  ஢  ⥫쭮 ଠ樥  ᫮ ࠡ⪮,   ⮩  ᨢ ⮣䨩  ᪮ 㤮⢨. ਢ ⠪ 饣  ⢮ ᭮ 1997 ,  ᤥ⠬  ᯮ짮 ⭨ ଠ, ⮡ ⢥न ᮬ   ࠨ᪨ ᥫ楢   ॣ ४ ठ   ⥫⢠  ७ ⨪ ⮩ ࠭. ᤥ⠬ , , ᮣ᭮  ⭨ , 26% ஥ ३᪨ ᥫ栬   㯨஢  ॣ ,   ᠬ  ᪠  56%   ᥪ . < 室  ᥫ, ᪮  ᥫ   ࠧ饭  㦥  饭>,- ᮮ騫 New York Times  ।⠢⥫ ᤥ⠬.   뫨 祭 ⥬ ⮣ ࠢ   , 饣 ᢥ  ⮯ ,  묨 筮   ࠪ᭮ , 뢠饣    ᠬ  ⠯.

⠭ 쭮 ⭨ , ६   ࠦ  ᪮ 㯭 ⮩ ଠ樨   ।⠢  ⮬,   ॡ뢠  ⮬ . 室    設 , 뢥    । 宣 , ⠩  ஭  १   ந  ࠧ襭 ᥩ   - ᥣ     ᮫⭮ ⢥,   , ﭭ    ᢥ.




  


ࠧ   ᪠ ⭨-诨,  ⠭    ⮫.    設⢮  ᬠਢ   襭 থ    .  ᥣ    ਢ몠  .   ﭭ   㦠饬  .  ⠭  ,  ,  ,  㫨     ᮡ⢥ .   祭 ᫮ 㦨.    宦   ஡  ꥪ⨢   ஭  窮  -  㣮.    設⢮  ⠭  㯮  ⮣ ⨪.    , ࠧ  ࠢ  ஡ ᯨ祪.    㤠 㣮.

 ,  ⮫  ࠬ        1970-   । 䨨,   .   祭 ࠢ,   뢠    ࠧ,   ।   祪  㯠 ᮤ,   , 祬  㦭  :  襩 ࠭  ࠡﬨ    . 㬭  뫮 ,  稥      ᪨ ࠬ  㦠騬  :  ᫨    ६ ࠡ,   ஢ ,  , ਢ 㯭  ⢥⢥.   㢥७,    㦠騬 筮 ,     , ᬮ       ஫  ࠥ  ।饭 㯮ॡ  ஭ ᮭ.

  ⠫ ⠭ ,  ⢥,    ᭠⨫ ࠬ .    㢨   1979 ,  㬠,   <頥>  ஭஢ 設.  ⮫쪮  ,    ᭨ 죨    뭭 㫨 । ,  ,   ⠭   ᭮.

  稫    MTI,  稫      ⠭  ⮢  । <᪮筮 ਤ> [Infinite Corridor], ᭮ 室 ࠫ .  ᮧ ஡: ᬮ     뫨 室 ,   ⥫, ⮡  뢠  㤥, ࠢ饣     ⮢. ᫥ ॣ஢    樥   뫨  ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  墠뢠  室,   ⥭ 뫠 ᥭ , ,   室  .

 ﭭ    ⢨⥫묨  . ᪮쪮    뫨 饭 < 㦭> , ।।⥫쭠   ⥭ 祧 ᫥ । ᪨     﫠. ᬮ    ⥯   ⨪ MTI  ⭮襭 : ⨪  ᪠ ,   ⮬  室,  頥 ந   ।० - 宦,    .   稭 ஥  ⮬,    室    易: ⨪   堭 ॠ樨.

 砫 1990-   த   ⠫ ⠭  㦭 , ᮥ  ﭭ ࠡ騬 䮭.  祭 뫮 : 졠  㯭. ।,    ࠡ   楫  騬 ᯮᮡ: 뢠 ࠡ  㫨 㯫,  ᮧ ⥫⢮, ஥    ᯮ짮  ६ ᫥⢨  㤮ந⢠.  ᪮  ⠭ ᮢ襭    㤭  ,   ந ᤥন騩 䥪.

 騭  㣮 ६   䥬୮ , 饣  ਢ⭮  ᮡ⨩, ந室  ⢥ ,    ﭭ .

 1993   ⥩   10  11  㢥 4-⭥ 稪     [Jamie Bulger]  ࣮   ୮ . ⠭    ᭮ ᠫ,  訥 稪   १ મ  ᯮ  ஦ ,   㡨 .   ᬮ । 㯫,   㦨 ⥫⢮   稪  㡨⢥.

< - 祭 ୮ ⨥ ᥣ  ⠭,- ਫ   1998   द [John Burgess], 㦠騩 ⤥ ଠ樨 ਪ᪮ ᮫⢠  .-   ।뢠 ᯮ짮    ࠩ  ᮪ ஢ 㯭,    訩 䥪. ਬ,  Card if City Center 䨪஢ ᭨ ஢ 㯭  13,4%>.[84] ᭮ , 㡫  ୠ New Scientist,  ⫥  1000  1800 ঠ   ⥬  뫨 ।  ; 993 ਧ ᥡ 묨,  ⠫ 뫠 .[85]
  ᪮ ⥫쭮 㯯 Privacy International, ⠭  ᥣ  150  300  ⮢ ૨ (225-450  ஢)  :  ,   300  , 墠뢠 ࣮ ,  ᨢ, ⮬ મ  ⢥   ஬ ᫥ த  㣨 ᥫ 㭪⮢. <:>:CCTV[p27] 祭  ⠫ ꥬ  ⨪ ஫  㯭, 樠쭮 ⥮ਨ ࠢ  ⢥ ᮧ.   ⨪ ९  ⥬  ᭮ ।⢮   த᪨ ᯮ浪.  㢥祭  ᪠,   ⠭  孮   ࠧ⨥ ⨪ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ 襥 ﭨ, 祬  孮᪠ 樠⨢  ᫥  ⨫.[86]

 㦭  諨 ᥣ   .  1996   業 ⨬ 뫨 ⠭ 祭  ᮬ  .  ஥ 砫 16 ᮪⢥ ,   䨪஢  , ஭஢    䮭. ࠩ  [Brian Lewbart],     ⢥ Downtown Partnership of Baltimore, ਧ,  業 ⨬   ࠩ  ᮪ ஢ 㯭,  ᠬ   <⭮⥫쭮 ᥭ>.  ᫮ , ⢨⥫쭠 楫 ⠭  砫   ⮬, ⮡ ᤥ ࠩ ᭥,   ⮬, ⮡ <⢥ ⢮ ᥡ  ⭮ ᫥⢨ ⢨ ⥬ , ⠭   >.[87]

᫥ ⮣  楩᪮ ࠢ ஢   ⠭ ,   ⠫ ⮢.   ⨢    業஬ த,  ⮬,  ⥬   뫠 ⠭ ⠬,  ⢨⥫쭮 ந室 㯫,-   ᨢ, ࠪਧ饬 ᮪ ஢ 㯭,  室   ⠫  ᥢ  業 த. <饭   ࠩ   ᯮ୮,-    [Sam Ringgold], ४ 楩᪮ ࠢ ⨬  ⢥ .-  楢 㯨 ᥣ ᪮쪮 頭 ⠭    ࠩ  ᮪ ஢ 㯭.   ᤥ,  ࠡ   㤥 ஢  業 த  祭 筮 ப.  ⠪  ᤥ  ᥬ⭮ প ᥤ ࠩ>.[88]

᪨ ⨬᪨ ஥  த㬠. ᬮ       㯫  筮 ६,   ,   뫨 㤮 ⥬ 筮 .  뫨  ਩ ,   ᯥ樠஢ ன⢠ ᮪ ࠧ襭, ਬ塞  ⥬ ᭮.  , ,    ᯮ짮  । ,   梥  ࠢ⥫, 뫮  㯮 ,  祭 ࠦ  ⢨⥫쭮 ᯮ짮   -.   楫  㦨  ᠬ ?  ᪠ ,  﫨, ⮡  ⢮ ᥡ .

  ⠪ <ᯮ⥫>    ஬ .  ५ 1995 ,   宬  ந   Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building,    室饣     樨  ⠭,   室  㧮 Ryder.    ⢠, ᤠ訥  ப Ryder'bi,  ᪮ 稫 ᠭ 譮 । 㯭.  뫮 ॠ쭮 ⢥ত  ⥩ .




 譥 


 㦭 , ⠪  , ⠭ ᭠㦨 ⠭樨  Park Street  ⮭,   ப ࠭  ⠭  த᪮ .  ᯮ  ਭ ࠭ᯮ ⮪, ঠ  ᬮ஬ 室  室      樨   㫨묨 㯫ﬨ. ஢ ஬  ᯮ짮    ⠭,  ਨ ன ⠭  300  ⠪     ࠭祭   ᯮ짮. [⮣  ।⠢  䨭]

ᬮ  砩 ࠧ祭, 設⢮ ᠭ ࠬ  ࠦ ᥣ ய  ⭮ . ,  ᫮ ᪠ ਭ   룮:  ᪫祭  ࢮ 砥, ⠪  ࠧ饭   ਬ筮,  祭 ᫮  <稥> . 誮 ஬ ꥬ 筮 ਠ,  室 ᬠਢ.  ࠩ    ,  ᬮ஬  ᪮  ࠣ⮢   .




   ⠫


 ᮪ 孮 ⢥ ⥭ ⥯ 室  ࠭  .  ᢮ ६ ᫥  ࠢ⥫⢠  ⠫ ᯮ짮  ,  ⥬ 諨   .   ᠬ ந諮   ⥬ .    ࠧ  㤥   ७ 宫直 ⠭     ᢮ 宦  .  ⥬  ப ࠭  뭪:    ஢  த⥫,  쪨 ⥩ - Safety 1st Day 'N Night TV Monitor System,-  ⥬  ⮨ 179 ஢,   ७᭮   ஢ ਥ ࠭.  砥 ᨣ   ᪢ ⥭, ⠦ ४    ᥤ ! த 㪮⮢ <ᮢ६ ࠪ᭮> ⥬ 筮 , 饩  <᭮  ⪮ ࠦ   ᢥ , ⠪   ⥬>.

 ⥬ ࠧࠡ⠭  ⮣, ⮡ த⥫  ਣ뢠  騬 讬,   த Boston Baby ᪠ ,  設⢮ த⥫   ਣ뢠  ﭥ.   ਥ ன⢮  䮭  ᯠ쭥, 뢠   ,   ⭮ ࠧ     饩 .

ਪ᪨ ॡ⥫ ਮ५  1998    2,4 ठ ஢; ᥣ   뫮 㦥 3,83  .[89]  襢  ⠫  ஫ । ᮢ ଠ樨  樨,  冷 ࠦ 뢠   ⥫⢠  ॠ ᫮  ᢮ ⠫. ⭮ ᤥ     ⢥ 冷   祭 樮 ᮡ⨩, ન ⢥ত 祣  ୠ      [Rodney King] 樥 -.

 筮   ⢥, 祬 ᭨ ⮨  ப த ⥬ , ⠫  뤠 ன ᨣ.     室  ଠ 樮쭮   ⥫ ⠭⠬ [National television Standards Committee, NTSC],  ᨣ,  室饣  ஢ CCTV    . ६  뤠 ஢ ᨣ,      譨 . ᫥ 饭  , ࠦﬨ  㫨஢  ࠭ ,    㣮  ஢ ଠ樨. ஢  ᪠  ᢮ ଠ,   饣 ६ ⮬    ,    ࠦ 㯭묨.

 Connectix QuickCam 뫠 ࢮ ஢ ன, 襩 뭮 譨 짮⥫. 宦  ⨪ ⥭   墮⨪, QuickCam  뫮 ᮥ   ⮫쭮  ७᭮ . QuickCam ⠢﫠  쪨 㣮 ᭮, 訬 ⠭    ;    ⠪ ⢥⨥  ਪ९  ⠭⭮ ⨢. 筮 뫮 ᮥ   ,  ணࠬ,   砫 ᢮ ᮡ⢥  㤨.   ⥬ ᯮ짮 ⪨  ;  ࠭    ॡ    ᪮ ࠭⢠. 㣨 䠪஬, ᯮᮡ⢮訬  ୮, 뫠  ਥ 業, ᭨  200  99,  ⥬   79 ஢ ᥣ      ᪠.

QuickCam  ⠫ ୮.  짮⥫ ஢ 稫 襢       ᪨ ࠦ  ࠣ.

  㯨 QuickCam, ࢠ ,   ᤥ,-    ᢮   ᫠   ஭    ୨,      . 筮,   ᤥ    筮 ன,  ⮣  諮  뫠 ,   ᪠ ⥫  䮭   ᬮ.  ஢ QuickCam ࠦ  ࠢ १ ୥      ⥫.

᪮    諨   ਬ  QuickCam.  訫 㧭, 祬    ⢨  誨, ⮬   ᥭ  ⠢ QuickCam 祭,  ᠬ ࠢ ࠪ. ணࠬ ᯥ祭 Connectix  ᯥ樠 ० ୮ :   10  15 ஢  ᥪ㭤  ணࠬ      ᥪ㭤      15 ᥪ㭤.     楫  ᥣ  6  ᪮ ࠭⢠  ᬮ ᮢ   ᪮쪮 .

 㧭,  誨  ᢮ ᮡ⢥ . ᬠਢ  襩 ᠬ쭮 ⥬ ,  㢨  루騬  ⮫  ⨭.    騬  ⮬ ⮫.  ,       .  ,     ,   騪 ⮫,   ।   祪  ୮ ২, 뢠     襪 Gourmet,  ⮬ 㫨  ⥫䮭,  ᥤ᪮ ᮡ.     ?   誨   殢.

    ஡ த    ਤ   襥 ᥭ ந   ३.   த ᨫ        ਡ⥫쭮  15 ᮢ.  頫  ᥬ .  㦥 ⠪ 㯠  ⮣ ,   ࠧ      ஡   - , ᬮॢ  .   ࠧ  訫 ᭨  ᥡ,  祬  ,  ⠢ QuickCam 祭,  ᮮ  ⮬   த, 筮.   稫 , ந   ,   뫮  砥  訬 誠,  몫稫 .  뫮 ⠪  ᤥ!  㧭,   﫠  室    ᮯ஢,   ६   ᠬ ᨤ  ⨭  ⠫ . ᫥ ⮣  訫  ࠨ    ३.




Web-


ࠧ ᭥,    ࠦ  ஢  㯭묨 १ ୥  ॠ쭮 ६.   ॢ頥  ⮣ ।⢠   ⥭樠       .

ࢠ ୥- 뫠 ⠭  1991   ୮ ਨ ਤ᪮ 㭨  뢠 䥩  <᪮ > [Trojan Room Coffee Pot]. ⭠ ᯨ࠭⮢ 짮  䥩, ᯮ  ஬ ⠦ ਨ, 뢠 <᪠ >. 䥩  㤮  ᯨ࠭⮢, ࠡ  ஬ ⠦. ஡ 砫  ⮬,  ᯨ࠭  㣨 ⠦  ,  㤥 ⮢ . 筮,  뫨 ᫨誮  (  ), ⮡   ன ⠦,  䥩  ,   ਣ⮢.  ⥫ ,  - 㣮   쬥  ᥡ 寧   䥩, ⮡ ᫥ ७쪮   ᫠ .
ᯨ࠭ 諨    ᯮ⥫   ன⢮  ᨣ.  थ檨 [Paul Jardetzky] ᠫ ணࠬ,  砫 ࠦ  ன⢠  ᨣ  ᪮쪮 ᥪ㭤. ⨭ -३ [Quentin Stafford-Fraser] ᠫ  ணࠬ   XCoffee,[p28]  뢠  ணࠬ थ檨    뢮 ࠦ 䥩  ࠭ . <⨭ 﫠 ᥣ   ࠧ  ,   뫮 , ⠪  䥩  쭮 ;  뫠 ⠪ ୮-,  ⮦ 뫮 筮>,- ᠫ -३  web-࠭, 饭 ஥.

䥩 ⠫ ਮ ஥ ⢮   ᥬ .  ⪠ [Bob Metcalf] ᠫ    ᪥ Comm Week  27 ﭢ 1992 .   ᮮ頫,  XCoffee 㧨 600 祫,  ⥯ ⮦   䥩.  ணࠬ ࠡ⠫ ⮫쪮  ࠡ ⠭  ࠢ UNIX,  ᪮쪮 ࠭稫  ࠭.  ᯮ⥫   襫  , ᯨ࠭  म [Daniel Gordon]  ⨭ ᮭ [Martin Johnson] த ⥬   㤮  ⨫ ࠦ 䥩 ।⢥  ᢮ web-࠭.[90]

 ਢ  ⢥ .  梥 ᥬ୮ ⨭, ⢥ ᯮᮡ 㢨 䥩  <᪮ > 뫮 㧨 ணࠬ XCoffee   . ᪮ ணࠬ  ⮫쪮  㭪,  ᮬ⥫쭮,  १ ࠢ뢠 祭 ᨫ. 㣠 ஡ 뫠  ⮬,  XCoffee  ࠡ ⮫쪮   ⨯ ࠡ ⠭権 UNIX.  饭 ࠦ  web-࠭ ਢ  ⮬,   ⥫ web-㧥  ᬮ  ⥬ ⮣ 饫窠   뫪. Web-㧥  㦤  ᯥ樠쭮 䨪樨   ࠦ:  窨 ७ 㧥,   ࠧ  ࠦ 䥩  ⮣䨥 १   web-࠭  .

 म ਭ᫠ १: ᮣ᭮ ᮮ饭 , 11  1994   150  祫 ⨢஢ 뫪  䥩  <᪮ >,   ࢮ  ࠦ  ᥬ୮ ⨭.  뫮 ஦ web-.

 祭 ᫥   web- ⠫ ࠭  ᥬ .    web-, ⠭ OpenMarket  ਤ,  , 뢠 ࠬ ⮭. C|Net, ஢ ࠭   쭮 ⥫  web-ᠩ, ⠭ web-,  ⥫ ᠩ 뢠  ⥬,  ⢮  ⥫ 㤨 . Farm.net, ୥-஢  -, ⠭ <믫 >,  뫠 ࠢ    믫⠬. 뫠   <㠫⭠> ,  ﭭ 뢠 ࠦ 㠫.  室  ᠩ    - < 誥>.  ⮬  JenniCam, , ⠭  ᯠ쭥  譥    - web--ᣨ樮.   ᯫ⭮ 㢨   [Jennifer Ringley]   www.jennicam.org  ⮩  20    ⮩   2     15 ஢  .

 1994  ୠ   ᮭ [Michael Isaacson]    म     <᪮ >. । 砫  म ᨤ  ᢮ ன  - ⠫. <,   㦭 ᤥ,     "䥢ઠ":   筮 :   ⨭  ࠭  ࠡ祩 ⠭樨: , 宦, - 㦥 믨  .  ,  ,  ਤ ᤥ  ᠬ>.

    ஬ 㬥.  ᨫ म: < ,  뫮 ᤥ ⨭ 㯭, ⮡   㢨,  믨 ?>

<,   㬠    >,- ⢥⨫ ᯨ࠭.

JenniCam

    . 室  ᢮   設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡,  ᯨ, 믠,   ࠡ⠥  믭 冷 ᪮쪨 , ﭭ ࠭᫨ ⮪ ࠦ  ᥬ ⨭. ࠦ   20   㯭 ᯫ⭮. ,      ᥪ,     楫 ᮧ ⮣ ᠩ.    .  樠쭮  ࠡ뢠   web-,       ࠧ 15 ஢  , ⮡  襭  - ࠦ  ⮬ 砥   2 ,  20. [  ।⠢ JenniCam]

᪨, ⠢ ࠦ 쪨, म     ࠧ , 祬  < >. ⨢ 襭 ॢ ன⢮ ਭ 䥢ન  ⥬  饣 祭,  頫 ⢥ ன⢮ ᢮ ᮮ⢠.   <䥩 襪>    ⮩ ࠪ⨪,   ⠪ ࠧ訫    ⮢⢠,   ᮧ 筮  ⢥ 䥢થ.




 Web-  -[p29]


Web-ᠩ 設⮭᪮ ࠭ᯮ⭮ ࠢ [Washington State Department of Transportation, WSDOT] 뢠 ଠ  ⥪饩 㦥 ࠫ   設⮭.  砥  ।⠢ ⥫   ଠ  ஡, ⮡   . ⮡ࠦ  ᠩ ଠ ᮡࠥ   ࠬ, ஥  ⨥ ࠫ    祬 200 ⤥ , ⠭  ᥩ ⥬ ࠫ.  1996  ⮪  45    ࠢ ।⢥  web-ࢥ WSDOT,   짮⥫ ୥ ᬮ १  ꥪ⨢.

WSDOT ⠭    ࠬ  ࠫ  ᫥ ன  1960-  Interstate 5, ᪠뢠  ࠭ᯮ⭮ ࠢ ப  [Mahrokh Arefi].[91]    ᥬ୮ ⨭  뫮 ⮣ ᯮᮡ ᤥ  ଠ 饤㯭.   .

⥫쭠    祭 ᥣ  讬   ਭ饬 WSDOT  ࠢ  - ॣ  ᥢ ⫠. 騥 ⥭    ࠬ   ஡    ନ஢   ⢥   ᮮ饭  ⠭  ண.  ⠪   ᯥ樠 ᢥ, ࠭稢騥 ⮪  ⮬設  ࠫ.

   㠫쭮 ࠢ:   , ,  㢥祭,  㦨饬 ᮭ  ࠢ   ஡   ண. ⮪ ଠ樨 㡫   . ࠦ  , ⠭  ⮭, ⠪ 뢠  . ᭮ ।祭 ,  ᫮ ,  ⮬, ⮡ ।⠢ ⥫⢮  砥, ᫨ 㦠騩 WSDOT 㤥 ࠭  ᡨ 設.

ࠤᠫ쭮,   ⮫쪮   ᤥ ࠦ     ப㯭묨, WSDOT ਭ﫮 襭 ᤥ   묨. ।⠢ ⮪  ᯮ殮 ⥫ ⠭権 ⫠, WSDOT ந஢ ஢   㢥祭 ⤥ 設, ᮡ ⠢ ⭨ ஦ ந⢨. 㯭 ࠦ १ ୥  ⢥न ࠢ쭮 ⮣ 襭. WSDOT  , ⮡ ⥫ 設⮭ 㬠,    ᫥.  ࠧ饭  ᠩ ⢥      ,    筮 ࠧ襭, ⮡   設  , ᬮ  ।⠢ ଠ樨 設⮭᪮ ஦-쭮 㦡, <  ᯮ     ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠>.[92]

筮,  , 뫨 㤠 䮭. 祢,    ᯮ짮  ਤ᪮ ࠪ⨪.   ⥭樠 ⢥ত ⢥⢥ WSDOT  砥, ᫨ ⥫      ࠢ.

,  ࠢ⥫⢠ 㯠  ᪮,  ࠦ 㢥७  ।.  ⮫쪮 ।⢠ ஫ ⠫ ப 㯭, ࠦ 砫 ⨢  ᯮ짮, ⢥ত ᨮ,  ᮫ ᢥ - 襥 ।⢮ ࠦ.   1997  ⨭  [Martin Minow] ⨫  RISK Digest ᮮ饭  ⮬,  ࢥ᪠  Nettavisen ᮮ頫  web-, ⠭  室  थ.[93]    蠥 ࢥ᪮ ⥫⢮   ,   設  筮 ,     ७,  ࠧ, 﫮  .

 -࠭᪮ ᨬ த,  㤨 室  ᫮ 祭 㫨, ⠫ ,  設 ஥   ᢥ  ४⪥ 11- 㫨  㢮    .  ⠭ १ࢭ   ﭭ  ந室饣  ४⪥.  直 ࠧ,    ⮫, ᮡ ᫨ । ᥭ 室,  ᪠   । ࠤ襬  .[94]
쬨樥 ࠭ ⥬  ⠫ -,   ,  祫   ⥫  ᯮ  뢭 । ࠦ ᢮ 㦥.  ⥫-䠭 ᠫ  ⠪ 孮.  ஬ <> [Snow Crash]  ⨢ᮭ [Neal Stiphenson] ࠧ -<㫨>,  뢠 ,   ,  㦠  ଠ  ஬   ࠫ쭮 ࠧ뢠⥫쭮 ௮樨, 뢠,   -     .   <> [Earth]  ਭ [David Brin]   窮 True-Vue,[p30] 뢠 ,    ,  । ଠ  ﭨ  쭠 ⥬ .

   ࠤ 㦥   ।⮬ 筮 䠭⨪:   㯭 ᥣ.  ⭮ ᢮ ᯨ࠭⮬ ਨ । ᪮ 孮᪮   砫 1980- ⨢  [Steve Mann] 砫  , ᬮ஢   .  뫠 ᮥ  ࠤ।稪, 뫠襬 ࠦ  web-ࢥ,  ⨭ ⮡ࠦ   <ᬮ,    ᪢  窨 אַ ᥩ (  ६ ᫥ ।)>.

   ⨫  ᢮   , ᮤঠ ᫥饥 ।०.

 襩     襣 㦥   ।  ࠭  㤠 .

     !!!

 稭﫠   㤮  ,   㣨 ࣠,  ࠢ  ⥫  -  ꥬ. ஫  ।⢠  - ᯮᮡ ন . , ன   ᯥ   ⠬.




  몫⥫ ⠭


㧨 , ⠪  ਭ  , ⠫,   ६  㤥    .   ,  ࠬ, ⢥ত ,   ᥣ  ਠ:   楫   室  ஫ ࠢ⥫⢠  ,   ᢮  㯭  ᯮ짮 .




 室祩 web- ⨢ 


㤮 ன  ३, ७ ஬ ன⢮ ஢ 祭  ୥, ⨢   祩 web-ன,  ன-,   ᠬ ।⠥  뢠. ⨢ , ᥣ  孨᪮ 䠪 㭨 ஭,  ᫥   ᨫ ᪮쪮 ࠧ  ᢮ ஭ ᯮᮡ. <   -  ࠢ>,- ⢥ত , 訩 쥧 ஡  ࣮栬 த MIT 騬 ⠭   ,   ᢮ ⠬  ꥬ  ᢮ . 設⢮ ᫥⥫᪨ ࠡ  易  ணࠬ ࠢ  , ਬ 孮 ⠭ ⥫쭮 ଠ樨, 㢥祭 ࠧ襭, ஥ 讣 ࠦ ⥬ ஢ ᪮쪨 쪨. [  ।⠢ ⨢ ]

,  ᮦ,  ⮯  ⮯筮 饣  뢠  ᪨ ᮮࠦ.   ﭭ ᭨ 業 -      孮᪨ .   , 騥  ⠬,  ।, 㤠   ࠢ .  ᯥਬ  ⠭ ⢥ত :    ᬮ  ࠧ ᮮ⢠   ࠧ 㬮.

 1997   ਬ  㣮 ࠢ [Centre for Criminology and Criminal Justice] ᪮ 㭨  ⠭ 稫 888 䨪஢ ⥬  砥,    ࠢ    ⨭  .  १ ᫥ 뫮 ⠭,   <⥬᪨  ய樮쭮> 䮪   稭   梥⮬ , < ⮬,   ⠫ ⭨ 㯫  襭 浪,  " 祢 稭">, ஬    ᮢ ਭ.[95] ᫥⥫ ⠪ ⠭,  10% 騭 뫨  ன ᪫⥫쭮  <㠩᪨> 稭,  40%   ਭ  뫨 ࠭   稭  ᮢ  ⭨᪮ ਭ.   :

 ࠢ୮ 頥 ᢮   宦,  䮪  ,  ᫥⢨ ८⨯ 諥 ।  ⥭樠쭮 ,  - 譥    롨ࠥ ஬  ᯥ⠡.  १ ⮣ , ᮡ 樠쭮  ᪨ ஥, ⠭ ꥪ⮬ ୮ ⥫⢠  ⢥ 吝.  ᯥ祭 樠쭮 ࠢ ⥬ ᭨ ᨫ, CCTV-⥬ १ ᨫ ࠧ⥫쭮  ਬ樮 ⨪  ⠭ ।⢮ ࠢ.

ࠫ ४ Privacy International   [Simon Davies]  蠭   म  1997    ⢨ ﭭ  :

-,  㡮 㢥७,  । ⮩ 孮 , ஢७  ᭮뢠  ⥫쭮 ⥯  樮 ᮮࠦ.   ﭨ CCTV-⥬  ஢  ⠢ 㯫  㢥祭  饭. ਬ, 㯫  碥 ॢ, 㯫, 易  મ⨪  ,  ⢨ ᨮ 㯭 । । ࠬ.  , 孮 祭 ᫠   ᭨ ᫠ <ᯮ⠭> 㯫.

-, ᭮ ﭨ ⮩ 孮    ᠥ  ⢥ 浪, 祬 ⨢ࠢ ⢨. ࠪ᪨ 設⢮ ⥬    <樠 >,  ⠢ , ࠢ  㦤  ઠ, ७ ⭨, 襭 ࠢ ஦ ,   ⥭, ࠪ, , ⢮, ⮩    稪  મ. 筮,  㬥,     楫 ਥ஢  孮,  ᫨誮   ⢥ 樨 CCTV-⥬  ⠪ 㯪.

,  㢥७,   孮  楫  ⥫ ⮢,    ᮮ頥.  筮  ᢨ⥫⢮,   ﭭ ਬ  - ᢮  ।㡥  ᮢ ਭ, , ᮢ ਭ  ᥪ㠫 ।⥭.  ஢  ᪨ 㭨⮬ ᫥ ⢥ত   ७. ᪮쪮 ᮪ 砥 ࠢ쭮 ᯮ짮 ⮩ 孮  祭 ࠦ ᫨ ᢮   ᪫ ⢥   প 孮. CCTV-⥬  ⠪ 祢 䠪஬, 맢訬 楫    ⥫쭮 樨.  ,  ᬥ饭 ࠪ⨪  ०饩  ॠ,   뫨 ⭮ 祭  業.[96]

 ᢮   ᪠ । ࠦ ⨢ ਧ ᯮ ,  , ࠧࠡ⠭  ⭮ ,  ᮪⢨⥫ , ⠪  Forward Looking Infrared Radar,     ⥬,      ᪢ ⥭.

ᥬ⭮ ७ 孮    .  ᯮ짮    ॣ㫨஢, ᫨ ⢮  ⮣.

ᬮ       㭨⮦, ண  㯥   ⢥    蠣    樨 ⮩ ࠪ⨪. ਬ, ⨭  ᮮ頫  RISK Digest,  , ⠭    袥᪨ ࠭, 뫠 ਭ㤨⥫쭮 ⪫祭 袥᪨ ⢮   ଠ樨 [Data Protection Agency].    童 ᨨ  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ ⠭᪮ 㬡   㡫 ⥪  㢥 ਢ  ⮬,  ꥬ   ⢥ ᭨,  ⢥ ⠫ ନ஢  ந .

୥  ⠭.   । ᪮쪮   ॣ㫨஢ ᯮ짮  孮,  ᫥騥:

  ࣠ ஫஢ ⠭    த;

 ⠭᪮ ⥫⢮    , ⮡ ࣠    < 頫  ⠭  ᪥ ⥬>;

⠭  ॡ  ⮢ ஢  ;

 த  ࠭ ࠦ  ⥬ .

 ४樨  ⠪  ࠡ    .   ४権  ⢮  ᤥ  ᢮ 㯭  .




  뫮?


 न쭮 ⫨砥  ᢥ.  䨧᪮ ஢ ᢥ ⮨  , 뢠 ⮭,  ६ ᪢ ࠭⢮.  ⫨稥  ᢥ,  ।⠢ ᮡ  , ࠭騥  , ⢥म ⢥  .    ।,   । ⢮  .  祢 ࠧ稥  讥 ࠪ᪮ 祭.   ࠧ , 祬 ࠦ,  祭 ᫮  ᤥ  ﭨ.  ந室 ⮬,  ᢥ⮢  ࠭  אַ ,  㪮 - ᥨ  ࠦ.

⮡ ஢  ࠧ  ࠪ⨪, ࠢ    ⥯ ᮫ .   让 ୮   ᬮ   쪨 ᥬ   ⢥   .  ᬮ ࠧ拉,  ᥬ   ᪮쪮   ᥡ .  ᫨    ᥤ, , 祢, ਤ   ⠭  䮭.    ⠭  ⥬ 䠪⮬,  㪮     ࠭, ᯥ稢   ⥯ <᪮ ਢ⭮>   ⢥ .
㤨⥫쭮,  設⢮ ⮤ ᪮  ࠧ㬥  ⮩   ⥯ 䨧᪮ ⥫⢮.  ⠪ ⥫⢮ १砩 㤭 㦨.  1946  ᮢ᪨ 誮쭨 ਫ ਪ᪮    ५ ਬ [Averell Harriman] १  ॢ 让   ⮢. ᮫  ⠪ ண,  ᨫ    ᢮    ᮫⢠  ᪢.      :    <稭>.     ᯥ㦡 㦨,   ઠ 室  䮭  ⥭. ࠢ  ன⢮ ᮪ ᨣ[p31] ᮢ᪠ ࠧ  訢  ॣ ᫠.

 1966  ᥭ   [Edvard V. Long]  ᢮  <墠稪: থ    ࠢ⥫  > [The Intruders: The Invasion of Privacy by Government and Industry] ࠧ    ப ᯥ 㯭 ᮢ६ 訢饣 㤮.   ᥭ  ᠬ ਪ᭮ ⭮ ,        ᠬ । 訢騬 㤮.  ᯥ祭 窠 ਭ   䮭  ।稪, 䫨஢    窥;   । ᨣ  ਥ, ᯮ  ⠫  ⮣ .  訢   ⢮ ⠪ 뢠 spike mike, 㥬   ⨪. ன⢮ ५  ⮢  ﭨ  ⢥ , , ⪭  ,  稭 । ,  蠫.
 ⠪ ⠭,   孮 ᯮ짮 ᥬ  ࠧ: ࠢ⥫⢥묨 ⢠, ਬ ࠢ  ஫  饢묨 த⠬  ⢥묨 ९⠬ , ᬥ    묨 쬨.  筮   १ 襭  ⮫᪮ 宫  ⮬  뫨 ਭ ࠭祭  ᯮ짮 । ஭ ࠧ, ⠢訥  1968   ⥫쭮  - Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act.[p32]

 ⨦   ஢ ࠡ⪨ ᨣ  䨧᪮ ⢨  ⠭ 窮  . ப ⭮,  ࠧ  ᮢ६ ᭮    墠祭   ୮ , , ࠧ   饭, 㤥 ஬㫨஢ 㪮묨 . 뢠⥫ , த ᯮ짮 ᮢ᪮ ࠧ ⨢ ਪ᪮ ᫠, ࠡ  ᥣ.  ᮢ६ 孨    ࠤᨣ, ࠦ騩  ⠫᪨ ꥪ⮢ 㦥 室  饭,  ਢ  誮쭨  祭 襩 ⢥ १ ਪ᪮ ૠ.

孮 訢 ப 㯭  ᮢ 뭪. ਬ,  䥢ࠫ 1997  New York Times Magazine 㡫 ४  த PowerVox IV, 魮 ࠢ 䮭 ⮨ 39 ஢ 95 業⮢: < PowerVox IV  ଠ 㡠誨   襬 㬫  㦨,    襯  ﭨ 15 ஢,  㯠襩 㫠  ﭨ  3 ஢   ࠧ,  祬    ᥤ >.

 ⢨⥫쭮 㦭, ⠪   ਭ⨥  ,   ᯥ祭 ᯮ 㦥 ᠭ.  ,   ࠢ⥫⢮  ᢮,  訢   ࠫ쭮.

  1994   㢥 뫠  㡫筠 ⥪,  ⥫  ।०,    ⢨ ஫ 34 ࠬ  訬 ⢮  䮭. ᭮ , ࣠ ⪮ ஫,- 室, 室    ᪨  . ⥬ ᪮ ஫ ࠧࠡ⠭ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  ਪ 祫, 襣   ﭪ,  ,   㯠  ᠭ㧫.  ᠬ  ᥡ , ஬ ⮣ 䠪,  ⢥  ।०  稨 ⥬ ஫.




襢 訢騥 ன⢠


㤮  訢 襢, 㯭  ஫쭮.  ४ ⪥  饥 ६ 㦥 饩  Sheffield Electronic Company ।⠢  FM-।稪, 騩 ࠧ ஥  9-⮢ ३, 饩 . ⭮ ⠭    設, ⠪ ன⢮   祭    । ᨣ,   ਭ  ﭨ  300 ஢. 㣠 䨪 砫 ⠭  ⥫䮭 . [ ⮪ ।⠢ Sheffield Electronic Company]

 ᪮  ਭ樯쭮  ⨯ 㤨ਭ,   㪫뢠  騥 ࠬ.  ப⠡ ਭ, 騩 ⥫㭨樨  ᮬ ࠡ⪨   㦥, । ⮯, 䨪樨  ﭭ   ᮡ⨩,  ⥫묨.

 1993  த -,  ୨, ,   ஡  㦨. < ५﫨    ஭ 㣨 . 㯯  ࠧꥧ  設  ५﫨  ஦ .   ࠧ裂 㦨  ७  []  >,- ᪠뢠   [Ward Hayter], ⥫ 㯮祭     த᪮ 樨.[97]

 , 蠢 ५, 뢠 ,    ࠦ   筮 ᪠, 㤠 뫠 ५졠. த᪨  訫 ४   稫    [Robert Showen]  Trilon Technology ᪮஢ ⥪   ५.

   ⨯ ⥬ ⮨ 25  ஢  ⮢  ७. ⥬ 﫠  쬨 䮭, ࠧ饭  ࠬ쭮 . 䮭 뫨 ⠭    ᮪ 窠.   䮭  뤥 ⥫䮭 . 䮭 㫠 㦠騥    뫠 㪮 ଠ  楩᪮ ࠢ,  㪨 ஢ ࠡ祩 ⠭樥 Sun Microsystems.  ⢫ ஢ 䨫 㪠  ।,     㪮 ५. ᫨  ⠫,   ५,  䨪஢ 筮 ६,    蠭  䮭,  ᯮ짮  ଠ   窨 ५. १ 45 ᥪ㭤 ⥬ 뢠  ५   த. ᫥ ⮣  뫠 㤠  設,   ⮣,  -  911.

<⥬  筮 । ५ 60-70%   ।  ⮭宦  筮 10-20 ஢>,-  .  ⥬ 蠫  뢠 ५, ந    㣨 ஥.  ᪠ ⠪,  <    ঠ 易  ५>,  㦨 ⥬.  ᭮ ⤠  ⥬ 砫,   ⢥ত,  ᤥন饬 䠪: < ।⨫ 讥 ⢮ ५  襬 ᮮ⢥>,-    㢥७,    ᬮ ।⠢ - ᪨   ⢥ত ᢮ ⢥ত.

 1967  客     < ⨢ >[98] ।,     ⠭ 䮭  ⢫ 訢 ࠧ  ⢥ ⥫䮭  ᯥ樠쭮 ⠭.  ⥪ ५  訢 । ࠧ:  蠫 ,  ᢮ 㯭  訢 .  ⮣,   ந  ࠧ஢. 뢠  ࠭祭, ⥬    । 客 㤠 1967 .

ᬮ  , ᠬ  ⠭ 樥 䮭  ᥬ த  㦥 ਬ ⢨ 祬-  <1984> द .  ᨫ ,  ⮢     襭  ਢ⭮. <  稫      襭 ࠢ  ਪ᭮ ⭮ >,- ⢥⨫ .  砫, ᪠ ,  樨   뫮  㢥 ஢ ஬ ᨣ  䮭, ⮡ 訢 ࠧ  㫨. <  ᬮ  祣 ,-  .-   ⥫䮭 ,   䮭-稪:  ⮣ ⮡   - 襭 ਢ⭮,  뫮       ࠧ ।⢥ । 䮭: 訢 ࠧ஢  뫮 楫 ᮧ ⥬>.

 㣠   稭,  ன     襭 ਢ⭮,  ⢥: <設⢮ 稪 ᯮ  ,   ᥡ   : ப 㡫   ,   室>.




⥬᪮ 筮 


祭 ࠦ  ⭨,    䮭, 筮, ᠬ 祢 㬥  ,    ⢥  ᢮ த.     稭 ᯮ짮 ᮪  ⮤.

㭠த ᮣ襭, ࠢ  ࠭祭  ᮪饭 㦥,    ᮡ ᨫ ਭ 襩 .    ਬ஢ - ஭ ᮣ襭  饭 拉 ⠭, ᠭ 24 ᥭ 1996    १⮬ ⮭.  ᮣ襭, 饥 १⮬ 40-⭥    ⠭ 拉୮ 㦨, ࠧ㬥 ᮧ ᫮襩 㭠த ⥬ ਭ  ᫥    拉 뢮,  뫨  襭 ᮣ襭.

⥬ ਭ 砥  ᥡ ᭮  ᯮ⥫ ᥩᬨ᪨ ,  ਭ ࠤ㪫⨤, ஠ , ࠧ㪮   ᯥ஢ 拉 ꥪ⮢. ᬨ᪠  ࠧࠡ⠭  㦥 뢮,  뢠 㪮⢮ <ᥭ> ᨫ 4,25     誠 ,  ᯮᮡ 㪠  ⮭宦  筮  1000  ஢ (㦭 ࠤᮬ 18 ஢).  ࠢ: ⠭ ⭮⥫쭮 讣 10-⮭ 拉୮ 鸞, ந  ⠥ 29  1996 , 맢  ᨫ 5,2 .[99]

 㤥 ᯥ稢 ࠡᯮᮡ ? 祭,  㦥 ⢫ ਭ   㣨 楫ﬨ.

ꥤ  ᥩᬮ᪨ ᫥ [The Incorporated Research Institution for Seismology, IRIS] 뢠 ᥡ <㭨᪨ ᫥⥫᪨ 㬮, ᮧ  ᫥ ७   ⥬ ᡮ  ࠭ ᥩᬮ᪨ >. IRIS ᯮ    祬 50 ᯮ  ᥬ  ᥩᬮ᪨ ⠭権  䨭 樮  䮭  [United States National Science Foundation]  ஬  ᫥ - ᨫ [Air Force Office of Scientific Research]. ࣠  1984  26 㭨⠬,  1997  IRIS ⠫ ᪨ 㬮, 童 ண   90 ०.

 IRIS ,      祭: 筮  . ଠ樮 쬠 ⮩ ࣠樨 ᮤঠ   ᥭ  孮,   ⢥ த, ⠪  ⢥ ந宦.  祭  । ᨥ.

᭮ 1995  IRIS 稫     . ᪠ ࣠  ਪ 20  ⨫ ࢭ-ࠫ᪨  ਭ  ⮪᪮ ,  १  12 祫,   5  稫 ࠢ.  १ ᫥饣 ᫥ 뫮 ⠭,  ᥪ  ᢮ ᫥⥫    ࠫ.

ﭭ 騩  ᥭ  ᫥ ᮢ ᮡ⨥, 襥    ࠫ 28  1993 .   ,  23   ⭮ ६, ⠭ ਭ 䨪஢ <⮫箪 ᨫ 3,6   㡨 1 >. 室  㯯  ࠧ稪 ᪠뢠  <宦   ꥪ  ਧ>. ꥪ ࠫ ᪮  ᠬ  祧. ⥬ ࠧ稪 㢨  ᨫ   蠫  뢠, 訩 ᪮쪮 ᥪ㭤. <᪮쪮 祫   ࢠ Mundaring  ᮮ騫  ᢨ饬 ꥪ, 宦  ஢ ,    ਧ⮬>.[100]

     ᮮ頫,   ਪ ⠫ ஢ 饭 ࠭  ⮬ ⠭樨  [Banjawarn]  ᥢ   뢠.   ந諮? 뢠  ᥪ ࠪ  拉묨 鸞?    ?    㤠   ந⢥  ࠡ?    [Sam Nunn] ⥫  ⢥.

 , 樤  䨪஢ ⠭樥 쭮 ᥩᬮ᪮  IRIS, 室饩  650   ᥢ-筮 ࠫ. ஠஢ <筮 ᮡ⨥> 28   ࠢ   묨 쭮 ᥭ 4 ᥭ 1994   ஢  ६  ࠡ 뢠 28 ﭢ 1995 , 㤭 IRIS ⥫  [Christel . Hennet]  ॣ    [Gregory van der Vink] ⠭,  ࠭ ᮡ⨥  﫮  ⥬  㣨.  ᮮ騫, , ⭥ ᥣ,   ⮫  孮   ⥮ ஬ ਡ⥫쭮  ,  ⮭樨 ண ᢮ ࣨ 浪  ⮭.   祭, ⭮ ⮫  ⠪ ⥮⮬ - ਡ⥫쭮  ࠧ   .

 祬 १   ᫥ ⥫쭮 ᮡ   ࠫ, 祭  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, ᬮ   ⠭樨 ਭ   ⢥म 㢥७ ᪠,     १⮬ ⠭ 拉୮  ﯮ᪮ ᪮ ᥪ⮩ <㤭 >.  㬥  ⥪ ࠡ⠫.




 , ࠢ    


 祭   ⭨ 㦠饩 । ⢥न,      ஬  : ,  - ,     ⠫. ᫨ ᬮ १ ਧ ६,  砭 ⠭   .   ⥭ ⮣䨨 諮  150 ,     ⮫쪮 室  ᮧ ⮣,       䨪஢  ﭭ 㢥稢騬 ⢮ ஡⥩.

롮, ।   ⮨,  ᢮ ⮫쪮  ᥯஭騬 ⥬ ਭ, ࠢ塞 ०ﬨ  ⥬ ਭ, ࠢ塞 ०ﬨ  ᥬ ᥫ.   ⨩ ਠ: ᮧ ࠢ, ।騥 冷 ⠭ ⥬ ਭ  ᯮ짮 祭 ଠ樨.  ⪫塞  ਠ  ᢮   .





6

 ᢮ 饥



   ,   뫮 15 ?

᪮쪮  ,   襩 ᥬ  뫠 ᮡ 殮 , ᮣ᭮ 訬 ,  稫  , ।饣  ⥬, ண    .     ⮬?

  ॡ  ᯨ⠫ , ࠤ騩 ᨭ஬ 㭠, ? 祬   頥  ?

 ᪠    ,     ࠡ.  ᪠, ,   뫨 쬨,       ⥭.   㬠,    ० ?

設⢮ ਪ楢 ⠥,  樭᪠ 㬥   筮  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,    . 樭᪨  -  襣 諮.  ࠭ ᥬ ᥪ.  ࠧ  ,  । ⮢  ࣨ᪮ 樨.     ,   ⥫       뫨  ஭.

   ६ 樭᪨  -    饥.    ।᪠⥫, ᫨  ,- ᮫⭮ ஢ 祫   ᡨ 㧮  㫨,-      ﭨ ࠧ  ।᪠㥬 .   襭 室 ஭ ਩  ⥭  ࠧ थ筮 㯠; ⨪,  騥  ஫஢ ஢   ஢,  ᫥;   ஭᪮ ᨥ  ᪫  樤 ⪠. ᪨   ᪠  .

 樭᪨    ६ ஢ ⮫  ஡, ᪮   ஭᪨ .  襬 筮  筮  , ஢ﭮ   ஢ 宫ਭ ஢ 祫 ᮧ 饭 ।᪠㥬.    筮 ᪠,     92 ,  ⨪ ,   蠭   ࠢ 35%. 客  ᯮ  ଠ  ⠭ 業 ⠢.   ᯮ짮    ਭ⨨ 襭,  ᫥   த  ⢥⢥ 樨.




 襣 ஡


樭᪠ 㬥  ⠪   ᠬ ᫮    ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.   ६  ॠ 㬠  ஭ 䠩   饭     ஫, ⤥ 䠪  ⮩ 㬥樨      १ 㯭 ⢨,  楫     砩.

ᬮਬ 砩, ந襤訩  䪨,  -,   騭, 襩  ⮬   ᢮ 宬  1982 .  뫨 ⠢  Vassar Brothers Hospital,  騭 ஦ ⠩    .  騭 ॣ஢,    쭨筮   . <,  த   >,- ᪠   ⢨ 騭   .[101]  뫠 ᭨ 譮,   뫠  ᮭ ଠ.

 ࠧ  쥧 襭 ਢ⭮ 諮 ⮫  ⮬   童  ।⠢⥫  ᪥ [Nydia Velazquez].    ᫥ ⮣,  ᪥ ঠ   ।롮୮ ᮡ࠭ ᪮ ⨨  -થ,    [Pete Hamill], । New York Post.   ᪥ 㤥  ᥭ  1994 :

 ᪠ ,  㭥 ஬  Post 襫  䠪   ⮩  St. Claire Hospital.   㬥⮢ ᫥,   ⨫     ᯨ⠫   樭᪮  ᫥ 樤쭮 ⪨.  ᪠ ,   㣨  த 稫  ଠ,   NewYorkPost ᮡࠥ 㡫 ।  ᫥騩 . 窠   ந諠  ⢥ 楫, ⮡   ࠭   ।⠢⥫ ⥬ ।樨     ⥫. 祭     ⮩ 樨,   ਭ﫠 襭  ᮮ  ⮬  ᥬ.  ⥫, ⮡    ⮫쪮 ୮, ⫨  ᨫ쭮.  80-⭨ த⥫  﫨 ⮣.      .   ⠫ ᭮,   ଠ 㤥 㡫         ⠭,  ⢮ ᥡ ᪮࡫.  﫠 ⥬,   । .[102]




 ᪥


१   ᫥ ⮣,   ᪥   롮   ।⠢⥫  ᪮ ⨨  -, -  ᯨ⠫ St. Claire Hospital ࠢ  䠪    NewYorkPost 樭  ᪥.  ᮤঠ ଠ  樭᪮ , 祭 ᪥  ᯨ⠫ ᫥ 樤쭮 ⪨ - ⪨, ந襤襩  ᪮쪮   롮஢. [  ।⠢  ᪥]

  ᥣ ᯮ, ⠪  , ,  ᥩ ⭮,  뫮 襭   ,   ᪥ 뫨 ࠢ  䠪.    ࣭ 樯୮ ᪠   業  襭 ࠢ 樥  䨤樠쭮. ᭮ ⠭   ॡ, ⤥ ॣ樨 ᯨ⠫ < ᯥ稢 䨤樠쭮  樥⮢>    ।樨  砥 襭 䨤樠쭮,    [Donald Moy]   樭᪮ ⢠  -.[103]  祭   (  ஢ )  ਬ ᠭ樮஢ 㡫 樭᪨  ᠬ  ᥡ.   ࠭,    ஭  饭,  ࠭   ࠢ   䠪, 蠥 ७ ࠢ ᯨ⠫,  ⭮,   ⮬  ᮢ蠥 㣮 ﭨ.

<  㬠,  த 樭 㬥 .    ,  ⠪   >,-  ⥫ The Privacy Journal    [Robert Ellis Smith]. <,   ,  ࠧ襭    ᮡ ᠭ樨 ᪮ ࠪ  ⭮襭    ⢠     䠪 襭 ਢ⭮.  , ⢥ত  [ 樭᪨  饭 ], ஢ .   ᪠뢠,     㣮   ⠪ ࠧ뢠    ਢ⭮  ﬨ   ॠ  ,   樭᪨ >.[104]

 1995  43 ਪ᪨    , ⠭ ⢥⢥  ࠧ襭 樭᪨ .[105]  䥤ࠫ쭮 ஢ ⠪   , ⠭ ⢥⢥   ࠧ襭 樭᪨ . ॡ  ⠪  祢, ᪮ 砨 ᠭ樮஢ ࠧ襭 ࠭ 祭 ப. ᭮ ᫥ Health Information Privacy Survey (  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ⭮襭 ଠ樨  ﭨ ஢), ஢ Louis Harris and Assosiates   ⨭, <27% ᯮ⮢ (।⠢ 50  )   ᢮ 㢥७,  ࣠樨  ⤥ , 騥    ᮭ쭮 樭᪮ ଠ樨 뢠  騬 ࠧ. 31%  ᯮ⮢ (।⠢ 8% ᥣ ᥫ  14  ਪ楢) ᮮ騫,   १ ⠪ ࠧ襭   稭 ।  ᯮ⢮>.[106] ᫥ ⠪ ,    ।  쥧 ஡  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ 樭᪨  ᮧ  < । ࠥ> -   .

< 樥 뫨   㤨, 㧭  ⢮ ࣠権 砥 ଠ  ﭨ  ஢: ⠢騪, 客騪, ଠ楢, ࣠樨 ࠢ࠭ , ,  ࠡ⮤⥫,   客   થ⨭ ,-   ⮭ [Paul D. Clayton], 騩   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ᭮  ࠢ࠭ 㤠⢥ ᮢ  ᫥ [National Research Council's Committee on Healthcare Privacy and Security].- ⭮ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨  ࠢ࠭ 祬  ॣ㫨  뢠 쥧 ᯮ⢮  ࠢ   ⭨  ᢮   樥⮢, ᪮    ந室  ࠧ襭 樥⮢    ନ஢>.[107]

ᬮ  ⨥ ଠ樨  ⪥ ᠬ㡨⢠, ᪥ 먣ࠫ 롮.   ᮭ [Tommy Robinson]   ⮫ 㤠竨.  1990  ᬥ ᮭ  ⮬   㡥ୠ  ઠ  㡫᪮ ⨨,    ⮭. 客騪 <᫨>   ଠ,  ᮭ  ஡  .  ,   訡.   , ந ᮭ ᫮ 筮 ⮩ 窮 ଠ樨.  ᮡ⨥  ୥  騥 ᮡ 樮쭮 ⠡, ᪮  ⮭   ᯮ짮  㡥ୠ  ⢫ 㤠筮 ।롮୮    १ .[108]  ᫮   樭᪨      ᯨ⠫    ப 拉  ஡.  襬 ⢥  ஬  ﭭ 㢥稢饥 ⢮ 㣨 ⨯ 樭᪮ ଠ樨, ,  ⮩,  ਭ   ।, 祬 ࠧ襭 .    祭 ࠢ 客   㣨 ࣠, 稢騬 祭 樥.    ஡ ஢ ⮢ ࠢ 樥⠬. ଠ楢 ,  ⢠ 믨ᠭ 樥.  祫 㯠 ⢠, த騥  楯, ॣ樮  ᮢ  ⠪ ⠭    樭᪨ 㬥⮢.  ப ⨬ ஢  ।  譨 ᫮ ஢   ஢, 樨, ६  樨 ਥ મ⨪.   ᪨ ⮢ ६⥫쭮 ࠥ ୮.       ஢ ⠩  祫,    ࠧ襭.  ଠ   ᯮ짮,    㣨 ,  થ⨭ 楫. Metromail,  ᮮ饭,  樭  , 뢠 Patient Select, ᮤঠ 15  . <⨢ ਬ୮ 30 業⮢  , 㯭 ଠ楢᪨     । ᢮ த ࠤ騬  ,   >,- ᮮ頥 ⠨ 樮 [Amitai Etzioni]  , 㡫  Consumer Report.[109]




  樭᪨ 


  ஭,  룫拉 쭮 ன   -१. ࠡ⠢   ᥬ ,    , 訫 ࠡ ࠧ  ⠫ 訬 ४஬.   ஬   㦨   樭᪮ 誠稪 ४  ⢮ ( ᪠ ᯨਭ). ᪮쪮 ⥫䮭   ᭨,   ⢮ ᯮ  ᭨ 襭 ਠ쭮     ࠤ ⨬  㦥 15 .   ᪠,        5  30 ,   砩 㠫.  諮 ६  樨,  稫 ਡ  ,    ⠫ த  㦥 ⭨.   殢 祬  ⥫ ?  祬 । 祫     㪮 ⥩  , ᫨      訥 10 ?

- - 樭᪨   㡮 ᯥ樠 楫:  ।⠢﫨 ஡   饭 祫  樭᪨ ०, ⮡ 騥 饭   蠭ᮢ ਭ ⥫ १.  뫨 ᮢ  ४⭮ 樭᪨ .

 樭᪨    ப ஫,  ࠭稢  ࠢ࠭.  ᯮ ࠡ⮤⥫ﬨ  客묨 ﬨ  ਭ 襭    ࠡ  客.  ᯮ ᯨ⠫ﬨ  ५묨 ࣠ﬨ  室⠩⢠  .  થ⨭  㯠 樭᪨   ᪠ ᪮ 룮. ᫨ ࠭    ⨬ ᫥, ⮡  樭᪨  뫨 묨, 묨  ᢮६묨,  ᥩ   室  ࠧ, ⮡  砥  ࠧ襭   .

- 樭᪨  뫨  饭.  筮 ,  樭᪨  ࠧ᪨  ᯮ  㤥   ।樨 ᢨ⥫, ᮡ    ᨫ. 樭᪨  ⨪  㯭 㡫     ࠧ襭. ,    樭᪠ ࠬ⭮ ᥫ    㡫樨 ᮭ쭮 樭᪮ ଠ樨  ⢥. 樭 - ᭠  祭 ᯥ筠 㪠,  訬 ᫮ ࠢ  ࠧ 訬 ᫮ 㠫 ᪫祭.   㪠   祫  ⠭ ।⢮ ⢥ত ।㡥   몮.

 ᮡ ⥯ থ ஧ 䨤樠쭮 ࠯᪨ ᥩ,     [Dr. Denise Nagel], ᯮ⥫ ४ 樮쭮 樨  ࠢ 樥⮢ [National Coalition for Patient Rights]. , HMO, 客   㣨 ﭭ ॡ   ࠯᪨ , , ᫨  ந, ᭮ 㤥 ࣭  樮쭠 ⥬ 襢 ஢.[110]

<⮢ 祫  筮,  饪⫨ ଠ樥   ࠭⨩ ࠭   ⠩.     ⭮襭>,-  . ⠭ ᫥   襢 ࠢ   ॡ, ⮡ 㦤  ६ ࠯᪨ ᥠᮢ  ⠢  ᥪ.  1995  客   ਭ ⠪  襭   Jaffe v. Redmond.  ⬥砥,   祫 ࠧ  樥⮬  業஢ 樠 ࠡ⭨  箬,   騬 業  樭 ⥫쭮, 饭묨  ⮬   ॡ  ᢨ⥫ ࠧ襭  ᮤঠ,  ᪫祭 砥,     ॢ訢  樥  ࠭ ਢ⭮. <⢥ ࠢ࠭   ᫮ ॡ 䨤樠쭮  ,   ਥ     ࠧ襭>,- ஢ .

  㬥  ᯮ ⠬ 塞  ᨫ.  筮 ஦ ।⠢  㬥  ⮬ 㤥 ᥤ, ⮡ ࢠ ਥ  ⥫  ⭮, ᫨ ⢠  ᭨ .

 室 ⭨ ᠬ  ᥡ   㯭   ࠩ  ,   筠 ࠪ⨪     ᨫ. ਬ, ⢠ ᨫ     䠭⠧  ⥬  ᨫ; ⥯  頥 ᥡ 㡮 ॢ    ᬨ  䠪⮬,    ந諮    ॠ쭮. ⢥   筠 ࠯, ⮡ ᬨ  ᮧ ⮣,   㦤 訢  㤥 ⥮    ⮬,  騭 ᠬ - ࠧ 﫠 饣  뫠 ஢ ⭨ .

 ⥬ த⥫   ॡ    ࠯᪨  , ⠪   쬨.   ࣨ த⥫ ॡ    樭᪮ ⮩ ⥫ 誮쭮 ⮡,  ᪠ ࠭ 砭,   ⥩.  ࠢ騩 ஢ ᫥  ᪠,  ⥫ 室 祭   ﭨ  ।⠢ ஧ .  த⥫ ⠨,   1986  客   ਭ  ஭, ,    ࠢ    ਥ  ⥫,  , 騥  襢 ஢.[111]




ਢ⭮ - 易 襣 


  ⥭   ⭮ ᯨ⠫  <, 㢠 䨤樠쭮 樥⮢>.   祭 㡮 . ᯨ⠫  㣨 樭᪨ ०   ᯮᮡ ᮭ ࠭ ᥪ 樥⮢. , , ન   ᠭ -     㡮 䨤樠쭮 ଠ樨. ᯨ⠫,  ⠥ ࠤ ᢮ 㦠  ⠪⮢  筮 ଠ樥  樥, 祭  ⠭ 믮 ᢮ 㭪樨.

 ,  設⢥ 砥  ਥ ᭮.    砫   㣮 樭᪮ ࠡ⭨,    ⭮ᨫ  ᥩ 쥧  ⢥⢥  ᮡ 祡 ⠩. ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮 樥 -    ᭮ ᨨ .  室   , ,  ⭮, : <   祭 -  ⠪   祭 -   㢨   蠫 ⥫쭮  ᪮  ⮣,   ᫥ ࠧ,  㬮  ⮬,    ⠩>.

࠭ 䨤樠쭮 樥 ᫮ ⥬ 䠪⮬,   筮   ᯨ⠫  㯥  窥 樥 㦤  50  75 祫. ࠭ ᥪ  ⮫쪮 騬 ᨫﬨ,  ࠧ襭  筮  <訢 >.  ᯨ⠫ ६   ࠡ ᯮ⥫ 㤭,  襤 祭  ᠬ 樭᪮ ⨪     ।⠢  ⮩ . 㣨 樭᪨ ० ஢ ᮪饭,  뢠   㦠   ࠡ⮤⥫.   㡥     ᪥   ᮭ, ०  㯫 㤭   ࠧ 祡 ⠩.

 ᫥ 50   ࠧ뢠⥫ ⢠  㯭 ௮樨  ࠧࠡ⪮ 孮 ।饭 饭 䨤樠쭮 ଠ樨  ᭥ 筨 窨.  뤠 ᮭ쭠  ਠ. ⮪஢ ॣ஢.  室  室  ० ꥪ    ࣠ ᬮ.  孮   ਬ  ࠢ࠭.   設⢥ 砥 ⮣   ॡ.

 窠 ଠ樨 ந室 -   ᠥ  ⮫쪮 ,   - . ᫥ 砫     㣨 ந室 砨,  祫  客  ࠡ, ᫨ 뢠,   ஢ .  1989    稫 ࠪ  箬,  믮  ।⥫ ॡ , ᤠ   䨧᪮ ⮢  -࠭᪮,  뫮 ⠭,    .  砫 1990-  -- ந⥫ ⠬ 㢮  । [Kim All red] ᫥ ⥫쭮   ந 㠭  யᠭ  ⢥ Marinol;   㧭,   ਭ ⢮  ,  ⪠ ਭ  ⭮  ࠡ.  1987   ਭ⮭᪮ 樭᪮ 業 ࠪ⨪騩     ਭ [Willliam Behringer]  ஢  ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ०,    ⠢  . < 祭 ᪮쪨 ᮢ ᫥ ⮣  稫 ⢮   ஦⥫, , 祢,    樨. 設⢮  뫨    樭᪮ 業. ᫥ ⮣ ⠫  樥. ᪮ ᯨ⠫ ࠭   ࣨ᪮ ࠪ⨪.  ⠭,  襭 䨤樠쭮 ந諮   ᯨ⠫>,- ⠥    < ਨ II>, 㡫  Privacy Journal.[112]

 ਨ 뢠  㣮 ᯥ  ਢ⭮ 樭᪮ ଠ樨.     ⮪ 쥩- ਨ , ⮡   樭 ਢ⭮,- 筮 窨 ⨢  த < ᪥ ⠫   ᠬ㡨⢮>  <  ਭ  >.  筮,  뢠 砩   ᮭ, ⢥ত  易⥫쭮   ⨭, 筮, ⮡  뫮 ࠢ.

  1993   砫    饩 ,  訫 ன ᫥    த᪮ ᯨ⠫ ⮭.   -   ᪮쪨  த, ᯥ樠   ஢. ,  ࠫ   ஢  ,  ,  ,   ॡ    䨪樨.    ஫ , ⮡    १.      諨    १⠬,   騭-஢楢, ࠡ⠢  , 㧭 , ⠪    稫  MTI. 頥   ⠪ ஢ ᪠뢠 ,      ?  ⭮⥫쭮 㣨 ,   ਥ,   㧭 ?

   ஡, 맢 ᯥ樠樥.   ஢   砥  ⮬, ⮡   ஢ ,  ⠢  ⮬ ᥩ.  ᮧ ᯥ樠     । 樭᪨  ਢ  ⮬,  ਢ⭮ 筮    ᫥饩 . ᫨    뢠 楫  樭᪨ ,  ⮥ 㧭 祫  室  ਢ   ࠧ襭 樭᪮ ⠩ 祫. ਧ 業   ᨫ    ந ⮢ (<᪨ >)   ஡.   襭  २⥣     樭 ࠪ⨪.

     ७.  ,  訩 ᯮᮡ  ꥬ ஡ 樭᪮ ਢ⭮ -   㭨⮦ :  䠩   , ᤥ 樭᪨  ᢮ 㯭묨  .  ਭ,  <஧筮 ⢠>, 让 ஭ ⮩ 窨 ७.   ᠬ ਫ    ६; ஧筮  魠.  ⠫,  ࠧ     - 樭᪨ ஡,  訩 ᯮᮡ  ⭮    - ⠢   ᥮饥 ७.

 ஡  ⨥ 㯠  樭᪨ ⠬ 砥  ⮬,    ᢮ ࣠. - ࠤ ⮬, - ⬮, -  ᫥⢥ ᪨ .   訥 訧७᪨ ⪫, ஫㥬 ⮧묨 ।⢠.  -饬 ஢. ⨥  㡫筮 㯠 ਩     ࣭  ᭮ ਬ樨   ,   ᥣ  .   楫 ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ⢥ 砥       ࠧ 樠 ஡,     .

 ᫨ - ᪮ ᢥ饭 ⢮ 㬥 㢠⥫쭮 ⭮  ,  ⫨稥  ,    稭,  ன   ࠢ  ᮡ ਢ⭮ 樥. ,  㬥 ࠢ  ᢮ 䨧᪮  襢 , 㦨 ⮣, ⮡  ᥤ  ࠧ ஦⥫    ﭭ  ⮬. ,   㦥 ਫ ࠭, ࠭⨨ 䨤樠쭮 ࠯᪮ 㬥樨  ६ ᫮  ᯥ譮 祭 襢 .

 㦨 ⮣, ⮡ ஫஢ ᢮ 樭᪨   ਢ⭮ ᢮ 樭᪨ .     ,  樭᪨ ०    ⮬.




ਢ⭮   易 襩 客 


  ६   ᯨ⠫ 祭 ﭭ  ᢮ 㦠騬  室 㢠 䨤樠쭮 樥⮢, 客  祭 ﭭ  ,  䨤樠쭮  ᮢ⨬   ன  .

  設 ਪ楢, ⮡ ᯥ  饭    客,  室  ᯥ樠쭮 .  ⮩   让 ࠪ,  ࠥ ⪨ ࠭ ।⠢,      ਢ⭮. ࠪ   ᮣ襭.  :
 ।⠢ ࠢ  , ᯨ⠫   樭᪮ ०, 客   㣮 ࣠樨, ०  䨧᪮ , ᯮ饬 묨  ଠ樥  ,    ﭨ 襣 ஢, ᮮ  ࢮ ॡ CNA[p33]    ।⠢⥫   筮  ଠ. ⮪  ࠧ襭  ⠪  ਤ᪮ ᨫ,   ਣ.

  ,      ⮬, ⮡ ,  砥  ᮣ襭.  ⢥ ।⥫쭮 ᫮  客  㬬  50 ஢       14 ஢  ⨡⨪,   ࠢ  ।⠢  樭 ଠ    㣮.   ࠧ襭 墠뢠  㬥: 誮,   ᪨.  ⠪ 墠뢠   騥  쬠,   ᠫ  ⭠⨫⭥ 㦪.  ࠧ襭  ।,     砭  । ப ⢨.

  㬠,  ,    ଠ,   ᯮ  ࠪ⨪.  ࠢ ,  客   ࠧ     筥   祭 ⥫ ⢥ত   ,   ᮬ,  客     ଠ.   殢,    ᫮ ॡﬨ  稭  . ࠢ 㦤,  ࠢ ?

஡ ⠪ 室  ᭮ ࠢ ᫠ 砥  ⮬,   ࠢ.  ଠ ࠧ襭 砥  ,    ᠭ. < > 砥   . < ଠ> ⢨⥫쭮 砥,  祣  ⠥  ࠬ ⮣ .   ࠧ襭  客  뫠  ᮭ ,   .

<  ⠢  ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡    室  ଠ  㦥 襭⢠,-  -ᥪ CNA   [Roger Morris].- 襩 楫    ଠ樨  ,  ⪠   ঠ⥫  客 ᮢ>.[113]  ப   客  ஢ ᫥  砥 ७  襭⢥  ᪠    থ   .      筮  ࠦ  ࠧ   客 ६  ,  . 筮, ᭨   ࠦ   襭  室.

樭᪨ 客  ,     ᯮ, ।⠢   ଠ. < 客 ਨ  ⠢ ࠡ  ଠ樥,   ࠭ 䨤樠쭮.  ⨬  ᮡ  ᠭ >,- 㢥 -ᥪ ਪ᪮ 樠樨 樭᪮ 客 [Health Insurance Association of America]   [Richard Coorsh].

 ਪ᪠ ⢥ ⠥ -㣮. ᭮ ஢  1993  ᮢ⭮ ᫥ Harris  Equifax  ᠬ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ࠢ࠭, 15% ⮫  襭  樭᪮ 䨤樠쭮 -   7,5  祫,- ਫ  ⮬,  襭 ந諮   客 .

, ਤন騩 ⭮ ,-  㭨  द 設⮭,  <। ਢ⭮> [The Limits of Privacy], ⠨ 樮.  ᢮ ,  ன,  , 筮 筮 ⭮  ਢ⭮, 樮, , ⢥ত  ਢ⭮ 樭᪨ .  ॠ쭠 ஧ ਢ⭮ 樭᪨  室   ࠢ⥫⢠,   .

 ⪥  ⨢,   㯮⮩  ࠧ⥫쭮 ମ,  ⨫  Albert H. Wohlers & Co., ᯮ   , 뤠襩  客  CNA.  ⨫ , த १ 楯 મ, ࠡ뢠 ,  ᯥ஢,     ७ࠢ     [James Malik], ,    㢥७, ᬮ ⢥   .        ,  ᥪ நନ஢ ,       .  ᨫ  ,      .  ᨫ  ,    ᬮ ᪠   ⮣.  ᪠, , ᫨    ,   ।⠢   쬥 . ᫥ 祣  㡪.

饭,    ⮫  Albert . Wohlers & Co.,  ᨬ⮬ ७ ஡ ਨ 樭᪮ 客 . ࠢ࠭ - ᢥ⢥ ⠭   樭;  ࠥ  ࠢ -थ஢. , ᪮쪮 ࠭묨  ந묨   ࠢ,   - ࠢ. ᫨    客,  ᢮      ᯨ⠫,     ⨬ ࠢ.  ᪮ 客  ࠭ 죨,    ⮢,    䨭ᮢ ⨬    ⠬.   ࠢ, ᪮ , 稢騥  客 ,    ,    㣠.

  ⠪  樭᪮ ᯮ짮 樭᪨ , ।० 樮,   㡫 ᫥ 1996 , ᮣ᭮ ஬ <35% , 室  ᯨ᮪ Fortune 500, ⢥ত,  ᯮ 樭᪨   ਭ⨨ 襭  ਥ  ࠡ>.[114]  ࠭  祭 ࠡ⮤⥫ ⮩ ଠ樨 - १ 客   奬 ௮⨢ 客, ..   뤠 ᨮ쭮 客 ,  믫 ந ௮. ( 奬 १砩 , ᪮  饬 ࠢ ࠡ⭨,   .)   砥, ਢ 樮, ந襫  㦠騬 ࠭ᯮ⭮ ࠢ -筮 ᨫ좠 [Southeastern Pennsylvania Transit Authority, SEPTA], 稢訬  . SEPTA 㧭  祭,  稫   饭 室  ,  ଠ 뫠 । 㪮⥫ ⮣ 祫.[115]

 ⥫쭮 ⠢ ࠣ  ࠧ襭     客,  ᮢ訫   鸞  室饥. 設⢮    ⥫쭮 㬥,  뢠  ᢮ ᥤ ,- 㬥 .  㬥  騥   ⨪ ᮧ  ९ ⢮ ᨫ.  誨, ⠢ ⥬  ॡ⥫.     㦤 ᫮  । ᢮ ਠ. ⢥,   ⠥,- 뢠.[116]




    MIB[p34]


  樥  ⥬ ⨪   ਢ⭮  ௮⨢ ਪ  ࢠ᪮ 誮    [Jeff Smith] ᨫ   祫  ࠧ ᯥ⠬ ਢ⭮  ஢ ஡   ᪮쪨 ⪠.   祢 ᮢ,   ,  ᫥騩:     ⢮    <樭᪮ ଠ樮 >? ,   㧭,  뫮 ਧ:

쪮  祫  襭   ⢮ MIB,   , ஬  祫, 客 ᢮   諨 १  ᠭ.    ⮬,      客 ⥫쭮, ᪮ 㢥  MIB 筮 㤠 祭.   ⮪  㪠뢠 ⠪  ⭮ 楤 㢥.[117]

 ᨫ ᢮ ,   ,  ⠪ 樭᪮ ଠ樮 .  ᪠,  .      樭᪮ 客,   ᠫ    .  砫 ᫥騥 :

    , 樭᪮ ࠡ⭨, ᯨ⠫, , 㣮 樭᪮  ⭮饬  樭 ०, MIB, Inc.,   ᡮ ଠ樨  ॡ⥫ [consumer reporting agency], 客  客뢠饩   ࠡ⮤⥫, ᯮ饬 । ଠ樥     , ।    ⮩ ଠ樨 John Alden Life Insurance Company    ।⠢⥫.  ଠ樨,    뢠, : (1) 䨧᪮ ﭨ, (2)  , (3) , (4) , (5)   (6)  ࠪ⨪.  ࠧ襭 砥 ଠ  (1) મ⨪, (2) , (3) 襢   (4) 䥪樮 .

   ⥬,  ଠ, 祭  ᮮ⢥⢨  ⨬ , 㤥 ᯮ짮 JOHN ALDEN LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY  । ࠢ  룮ਮ⥭.    JOHN ALDEN LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY ।  祭 ଠ 客뢠饩 , MIB,  ⠪  㣨 䨧᪨  ਤ᪨ 栬, ⢫騬  ⥫쭮     裡   饭, ,   㣨 ⠭  ,    饬 .

<  ⢮   ⮬ ?>,- ᨫ  . <>,- ⢥⨫ . ᫥ 祣 ⠫    ࠧ.  -०    ।⠢,  ⠪ MIB, ஬ ,  , , - 業  樭᪮ ଠ樥.

᪨ MIB ࠭  ᢮  ଠ  .    ࠧ,   ᮮ頥  ﭨ ஢  客 , , 稭  ஡  楬   ࠪ ,   ᮮ饭  MIB.   ᫥騩 ࠧ    客,  <> 客    MIB  䠩  ᬮ  ।騥 饭.

᪨ MIB ᮧ  ⮣, ⮡ । 砨,  , 騥 쥧 ஡  ஢쥬 (  ⭮ ⪠뢠  客),  <> 㪠  ଠ  客    ᢮   ஢  죮 䠬, ।祭  ࠪ᪨ ஢ . MIB  <࠭ ⮨ 客 客    ⠬, । ,   ந  १ 襭⢠  諥 ᮪ ଠ樨>,-  १ MIB   [Neil Day].[118]

MIB  ᮧ  樭᪨ < ᯨ᮪>. 客騪 樠쭮 饭 ᯮ짮 ଠ, ࠭  䠩 MIB,  ⢥ ᭮  ⪠  客.  ࠧ襭  ᯮ짮  ଠ  ஢ 饣 ᫥.  ࠩ , ⠪ ᪠  ࠢ.

MIB, ᮧ  1902   ᨮ쭮 ᪮ ꥤ, ਭ ᥣ  750 客 .  MIB  ᮤঠ 樭᪨ , १⮢   ७⣥᪨ ᫥.  ⮣   祫 ᮤন ᪮쪮 ,  뢠 , ⠢  祫.    , ஡  थ筮 ⥫쭮  㯮ॡ મ⨪.   祭 ஡. ਬ,   ⠭,     MIB   :

易   ﭨ [AIDS-related complex or condition, ARC]  ᨭ஬ ਮ⥭ 㭮 ();

᭨   ⮬, 㣨 ᫮-⮣ 䥪権,  , 饣 ஭᪮ 㢥祭 ᪨ 㧫, ﭭ   २;

ଠ १ ᫥ -⮢;

ଠ १  ஢,    ⤥쭮 ;
稥    ࠧ ⨯ ⥫, 㪠뢠  ⢨  HTLV-III;[p35]     ᯮ.[119]

   MIB  樭᪨, ⬥砥 . ਬ,  MIB   , 㪠뢠   ࠧ ,  <ଠ  ᭮ ,   ᯮ  㢫祭 樥>.[120]   ᮮ⢥ ᠬ,   設⢮ 客 .

 ࠧ, MIB  樠 客 ⢮  ᡮ ᯫ⥭  客. MIB   ⮬, ⮡  砥,   客  ⪠ 客  祫  樭᪨ ᭮,  㣨 客       ⠪ ⪠ . MIB ⠫ ꥪ⮬ ﭭ ᯮ஢  1970- ,  ⠫ ⭮   ⢮. ୥  ᯮ஢ 뫠 ᪫ ࣠樨  ᥪ⭮.  祭   客  ஢  MIB,  ⠢ ᢮ ⮢  ⭮   䠩. MIB  㯮    , 饭 ஡ ॡ⥫  ᯥ祭  ਢ⭮.   ⥫䮭 MIB ⢮  饤㯭 ࠢ筨. ⭮ த  ᥣ, ࠧ   襩 ⥯: MIB  ࠧ蠥 ᯨ᮪ ᯮ㥬  .

 :

騩  ᮧ ᯨ᪠  砥  ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮.  MIB 祭 ⪨.  让  㬠, ᮤঠ騩  । 2-3 . 筮      - 321,   㪢 - 321XYZ. ᮬ ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮  㯭 ᯨ᪠   ᯮ짮 ⮫쪮 ᯥ樠쭮 㯮祭묨 栬  客    .

࠭  ᥪ ⠡ ᮮ⢥⢨    /ﭨﬨ,   ,  ன ⥯ ᯥ稢 ਢ⭮.  ᥪ稢 ᯨ᪠    ⥫쭮 ਢ⭮.  ⠪: ࠧ ࠤ 䨤樠쭮 - 樥 ⮣,   ᮮ騫  ⢮  㯮  , ⭮  ? ᥪ稢  ⮫쪮 ᠬ ,   ᫮᭮ ᠭ  祭, MIB ᠬ ᮧ ।뫪      ⥭ﬨ,  䠩 ᮤঠ  ⮫쪮 樭 ଠ.  諮,  ⥫ ୠ Privacy Journal   [Robert Smith], MIB    祭 <ᥪ㠫 権>  <࠭ >.   ᮣᨫ  ⨬, , ᪮ MIB  ࠧ蠥 ᯨ᮪ /ﭨ,      ,   ⠭ ⨭.

 ࠧ    筮 ࠭  䠩 MIB ଠ樨. <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>  ࠭  樭᪨ ,  MIB ஢쭮 ᮣᨫ 믮  ॡ ᫥ ஢ન   1983  ࠫ쭮 ᨥ  ࣮.    MIB  砥  15  ᮢ  ,  .  250  300 祫 ᯠਢ ᮤন  ⮢,  .  饬, <97% ⮢, 稢  MIB [ 1996 ], ਧ ᮡ࠭   MIB ଠ 筮>,-   ४ 㡫樨 .

 ᫨   ।  300 樥⮢,     樭᪮ 客.  1990  㯯  ᫥ ⢥ ᮢ   [Massachusetts Public Interest Research Group, MASSPIRG] ஢ 祭 ⥫쭮 MIB  㦨 讥 ⢮ 砥,   १ 訡   MIB  뫮 ⪠  祭 樭᪮ 客.   砥, ᪠뢠  MASSPIRG  ⪠ [Josh Kratka], 稭    ᮮ騫 ᢮ 客 ,    ,  ⮬ ࠢ  ஡, 㦥 ᪮쪮   १ ࠧ   ॣ୮ 頥  㯯  . 客  ந஢  ᭥  ᫠  MIB  <᭮  ஢ 㯮ॡ >.  ,  ன  祫 ⥫ ନ 客, 稫   ଠ <㯮ॡ >  ᨫ   客 ⠢  25%.[121]

 㣮 砥 ப᪠ 訡 ਢ  ⮬,    MIB   騭  ଠ,   - ⥫  . MASSPIRG ⠭,  < ⮫쪮 ᫥ १砩 ⥫⢠ ᨨ   ॣ㫨஢ [state regulatory board]> - ⠪  騭 ࠡ⠫ 箬 -  뫨 ࠢ.

MIB , , ᫨  १⠬ ।⠢   - 뫮 ⪠  客,  㪠뢠  ࠢ쭮 ᯮ짮 .  ન,   MIB  ⮫쪮  ଠ樨, ।⠢塞  祭  客,    ଠ樨    믫 客.   ⣮ઠ  쥧  ᢥ 饣   㭪, 饣 客  ࠢ ᮮ MIB ଠ  .

<樨 MIB ,  ⮫쪮  ஢ப ⥫쭮 , 뢠 㣨  客   ஢, ᨬ묨 㤨ࠬ   ⢥  ॠ쭮 ﭨ ,-   .- ᪮쪮  ⭮, ⠪ ஢ப ᨫ ᨬ  客 ਨ ᫥⥫  ஢>.




ਭ㦤 祩  


筮, 客   ଠ  ࠧ 筨,  ଠ樮 ⥬ 客  㤮ᯮᮡ [Disability Insurance Record System, DIRS]  㪠⥫   믫 客 [Health Claim Index].  䠪 ⮣,  客    ⪠뢠 ⠬  客   ஢  ᭮ ﭨ  ஢, ⠢ 祩  ⪨ ᨭ.   ஭, ᨮ ᮮࠦ   ॡ       ᢮ 樥  ।⠢   ࠢ ଠ.  㣮 ஭,  , , ᫨  㤥   ⥭  ⠭ ,   ਢ    樭᪨   樥⮢ ଠ樨,      饬   客.   ⢨ 쬥    ଠ樨,    客 ,  ⮬᪨   ⥦ .

<客   饥 ⢮ ଠ樨,-    -୮ [Dr. Peter Tarczy-Hornoch], 騩 讥 ⢮ ஥⮢  ⠭樮 樭  樭᪮ 業 設⮭᪮ 㭨.-     "⮩ ᥪ㠫쭮 ଠ樥",   ⨯ " ﬨ ࠤ  誠? ᯨ⠫஢     ஡    મ⨪? ࠤ   ﬨ, ॡ騬 ண 祭  砫   㦥 ⠪ ?"   ᮡ   筮.   . 90% 筮  筮  設⢠  ਠ>[122]

ﭮ 業⮢ 筮  筮 樭᪮ 客   ਭ 襭 த  客  ⪫  . 90% 筮  筮  ਭ 襭,  ᮪   客 ⠢    襩 ,  ਤ ६  ᬮ. 90% 筮  筮  ⥬᪮ ᪫祭 ,   । 㦤  樭᪮ 客.  , ᫨     ᠬ 稥 10%,  㤥 ⪠  客  ।  ᮪ ⠢, ᬮ        浪? 襥,    ᤥ,     客   ,  訡筠 ଠ      MIB.

⮫  ⮩ ,   롨 .  ⠭ ⢨⥫쭮    ,  ᯮ   ⮨  ,  騥 樠쭮     ᫥⢨  客. ਬ,  -୮,   ᯮ짮  <ன⢮ 樨> [adjustment disorder]  <>.

樭᪨ ࠡ⭨ 뢠  ୠ⨢  ண⠬.  ⮩ ࠪ⨪  ᮬ,   ࠧ ;  筮   ᪨   ࠭ ⮣ . 祢 : ண ᮧ ࠧ   誨-誨  砬  客騪,  ன 客  ﭭ  뫮 <> ண,   뢠 .  ᫮ ⥬,  ࠧ   ࠧ 㣮 ࠭ ᯮ ࠧ ண,  ⥬,  ஥ ⢮  ⢨⥫쭮 ࠤ ⨬ ﬨ,    묨,    㦠 ண.

   ⮫㫨    䥪 ண⮢  1994 ,   砫  樭᪮ 客. 客  뤠  ,      .   ਭ᫠  ,  뫮 ⪠  客.

稭 ⪠,   㧭 , 砫  ⮬,    ᮮ騫 客 ,   ᬮ  ஢   <饥 ᯮ⢮ [generalized anxiety]>.   뫠 쥧 稭   -  室 ᬮ     襩 ᢠ!  ஡ 뫠  ⮬,  㣮   襬 ࠩ ᯮ짮  <饥 ᯮ⢮>  ⢥ ண  樥  ᨥ, 砢襣 祭 ⨤ᠭ⠬. ⭮,  客     뢠  ⠪ ⥭樠쭮 ண騬 ⮬,   .   殢 客  ᥣ  ࠡ뢠 죨  客 ஢.

  1996  १ ⮭ ᠫ <  ⭮  ᭮ 樭᪮ 客> [Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]. ᭮ ⮬ , ਪ᪨ 客  饭 ᪫  㤭,  稭    ,  奬 㯯 樭᪮ 客  ࠡ⮤⥫.   ⮣   襫.  易 ।⠢ 客 ⨥  騬 ,       ஭᪨ 業 ⠢.  ⠪   த  㯯 樭᪮ 客  , ᫨    㤭  , ॡ饥 ண饣 祭.     ⠪ ,  IBM  Exxon,  ⠭ 騬 䠪஬   .  頥  㦠,   ணࠬ 樭᪮ 客  ,    墠뢠 , ᠬ⥫쭮  ᮬ,  , ᠬ⥫쭮 稢 ᢮ 客, ᪮  ࠡ⮤⥫  砥 樭᪮ 客  樠   ᢮ ࠡ⭨. ,  ᮢᥬ  ࠣ  客 ,   ண 易  ਬ樮 ᯮ짮 樭᪨ .   殢,  , ⢫騥 客 , 室   鸞 ᮧ⥫ MIB.




ࠢ  ᠬ ᥡ


 ண XXI    ,  祫 ⪠뢠  㯥  ᢮ ᮡ⢥ 樭᪨ . ⢨⥫쭮, 96% ਪ楢  ࠢ  祭  ᮡ⢥ 樭᪨  ,  84% - <祭 >.[123]      ਪ楢 ⮣ ࠢ .

᭮ 㡫 Privacy Journal 롮થ  ,  ਢ⭮,  ⠬   䥤ࠫ쭮 ஢, ⮫쪮 23  ।⠢ 樥⠬ ࠢ     ᮡ⢥묨 ﬨ  (. 祭).[124] , ᬮ   ,  ࠦ  ⮢ ⠫   ⥬,     㯠  樭᪨ ⠬.

᭮ ஢  1993  Harris-Equifax , 設⢮ ਪ楢 (87%) ,   < >  < 饥 ।⠢,     ஡⥩>  ᮤঠ ᢮ 樭᪨ . ਡ⥫쭮   ਪ   - ᮢ ᮤন ᢮ 樭᪨ . 쪮 92% 訬   ᤥ, 뫠 ।⠢   . । ,  뫮 ⪠  ⮬ 㭤⠫쭮 ࠢ, 31% 稫 ⢥,      ;  25%, ।⠢   ਪ楢,   ⪫  ᭥ 稭.

,   樥⠬ ।⠢ ࠢ    ᢮ 樭᪨ ⠬

ਧ 

ࣨ -

᪮ᨭ 

 ( ࠭   ᯨ⠫)

द

 ॣ

 (    )

୨

 -

(⮫쪮 ࠯᪨) ( ࠭   ᯨ⠫)



ࠤ ⨪ ਤ

㨧 ( ) 

 ( ।⠢  樥,   ᠬ 樥)

ਫ ( )

  ࠧ  ஡? .  襬 ,   ॥    襩 樭᪮    ᫠   㣮 . 筮,  ⮣ ⮡ 뢠  - ,   ᢮ ண ᪮ 㣠, ண  ࠭ ।।     .   ࠪ⨪ ⠪ 㫮 ᥣ ࠡ뢠.

 㡥  ஡    . ਬ,  ଠ      ࠢ 㯠  ᢮ 樭᪨ ⠬, ⠬  ࠤ 뢠  <ࠪ>  㣨 , 騥  ᫠  ⢥, ⧮쭮,        ᥬ.  饥 ६  ଠ ᮧ 樮 ॥ ࠪ .  ᨫ ॡ ७  ࠬ ⮩ ⥬ ᫮ ਯ⮣᪨ ⬮  ᮪  , ଠ     ॥.  ਯ⮣   砥 ਬ   ᯥ祭    ᯥ祭  ਢ⭮, 楫 אַ ⨢: ਯ⮣᪨ ।⢠ , ⮡ ࠪ   ᬮ 砩 㧭 ᢮ .[125]

襭  ࠢ    ᢮ ᮡ⢥ 樭᪨ ⠬ ୮ 砫쭮.      ࠧࠡ稪 <  ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨> ,    ⢮ ᥩ  祫,       ஢  ᪮४஢. ⥫쭮,    ࠭  ணᨢ ⥬  筮 ᢮  ࠪ⨪ த ⢮.

 ஭ , 襭 㯭  ᢮ ⠬  樥⮢  ᫥⢨ 筮 ਢ⭮ 樭᪮ 㬥樨 ᥣ. 㤠  譮 뫠 樭᪨  客   㣨 砬, ࠪ᪨  㡥     । 樥⮢. ᪨ ⠭   ࠢ 樥⮢, 㢥祭  樭᪮ 客  ⥭樨  ᠬ⥫쭮 ᯥ祭 ᥡ ࠡ⮩ ਢ  筮   ⮬,    ७   ᢮ 樭᪨ ⠬  騥 .  ᯮ짮 ⢨ 䨤樠쭮 樭᪨  -   ᯥ祭 ࠢ 樥⮢.




ࠢ   諮


 ᯥ筮 㯯 ਪ楢 㦥  祭  祬 60  ⥬᪨ ⪠뢠  㯥  樭᪨ ,    ᥬ . 筮  ਪ楢 墠祭 㤠⢮, ⠭   묨, 묨 ﬨ.  ਪ 룫 ⠪ ,    ⠫;    ॢ  ᢮ ᥪ.    - ,   뭮.

  뭮 ᥪ稢     1930- . ᥪ稢  , 樠 ଠ 﫨,   ६ ᬮ ࠭ ⨢ ⭮襭   ᪮ , 饩 <஦> ॡ, ⠪   ਭ襩  ,  㬥襩  ᢮. ᮡ  ᥪ⭮ ଠ樨  뭮 ਮ५   ன ஢ ,   ஦ ⥩ 﫮  騭,     ய  .

᫥ ଠ樨  뭮, 뢠騥   ० 㦨,  ᥪ⭮ 㢥稢 ⥯  ஫   ᪨ த⥫ﬨ, ⠪   ਥ묨. , ࠭ ⠩ 뭮 <祭 ਢ⥫쭠  ਥ த⥫ - ॡ 㤥 訬, ᪠ ᥬ   ,-    [Abigail Lovett], -१ ਪ᪮   뭮 [American Adoption Congress], ࣠樨, 饩  ନ஢ ⥫⢠  뭮  樮쭮 ⠡.-  ,   㤥 訬 ᯮᮡ  >.[126]

ᥪ稢  ᥪ稢 ଠ樨  뭮 - १砩 ᫮ ,  騩 ஡ ⮢, த⥫᪨ ࠢ  ࠢ ॡ. ᪠ ࣠ 樮 ᮢ  뭮 [National Council for Adoption, NCFA] ⢥ত,  ⨥ ᥩ -   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  祭 ஭. ⨥  饩  뭮 ॡ 頥   ⮣,  -  ୥   .  ⠪ 饭, த NCFA,  樨,    ᢮ 襭    ॡ. NCFA  ⠪, , ᫨   㤥 ॡ ᥪ稢 ᥩ,  騥  । ᤥ , ⮡   ⥫쭮 ॡ,  ⮣ ⮡ த   ⤠  뭮.

 ﭭ 㢥稢饥 ⢮ 뭮, ⠢ 묨, ,  ⠩ 뭮 蠥  ꥬ ࠢ  ᢮ 筮, ᢮ 諮, ᢮ 樭᪨   ᢮ ᫥⢥.  ⠨,  ᪨ த⥫   ࠢ 稢 ᯨ  ᢮ , ⠪     ࠢ    쬨  㡨 .

 祭    ਬ [Shea Grimm] ࠤ ﬨ  ᯨ.  ஢ ࠧ   ᫥,     稭. < ⭮ᨫ    ᪮>,- ᯮ .[127]  ਬ 뫨  㣨 ᯮ⢠.  﫠,   ஧ ࠭ ᬥ  ࠪ 㤨.  ᠫ  .  祣    ᢮ ᫥⢥.  뫨  ।?  ⫨稥   뭮,    䠪 ᢮ 뭮.   -  ⥭.

 樭᪮ 窨 ७, 㭤⠫쭠 ஡ ⠩ 뭮 砥  ⮬, , ᫥ ⮣   㬠 ଫ   ᥪ祭, -० ⠥ ⢥ ᪠   ᪨ த⥫ﬨ  뭮 ॡ. ,  ᠭ   ᢨ⥫⢥  ஦,- 뭮 ॡ     ਥ த⥫. ᪮ 樭   ᮧ ஫ ᯮ짮 ᪮  ᫥⢥ ଠ樨  ஢  祭 , ⠭ ᭮,  砫쭠 䨪⨢ ⠩ 뭮   ୠ,  ᭠.

< ᥣ  ᮬ, ᪮  㤮ਫ,    ᫥   ஡.   ᯮ 訬 ⢮ ଠ樨>,- ᪠ ਬ.

⢮ ᪮쪮 稭,   ਬ 訫  ᪨ ᢮ ᪮ , ᪨,   筮  㢥砫 ᯥ宬. ᫥ ⮣ ⠫  ⢥   .  㧭,      ਪ. <ਬ୮ १  , ᫥ ⮣   諠   ,  㧭,   ࠤ ࠧ⨥  ᪮.    ᭮   ᢮   ᪠: "  ࠧ⨥  ᪮">.  ⮣, ਬ 㧭  ᯮᮡ 祭. < ᪠  頫 ᨫ ७஢, ⮡ ९ ,   ᮢ⮢ , ⮡ ᪮஢ ᫠ ᪮.  ⮦ ⠫  .  ⠫  訬 审.     >.

   ਬ ᪠,    ᯨ <ᯮ  祭 ।>.  ⢥ ⭮ ⥫쭮 ࠦ     ࠪ 㤨: < ਨ  ᥬ   砫  >.
ਬ   ⥫ ।ᥤ⥫  ᠬ ⥫⢠  Bastard Nation,[p36] ࠢ⭮ 㯯, ꥤ饩 ,   ᢮ 뭮,  饩  ⨥ ᥩ  뭮  樮쭮 ⠡.  ⮩ ,   ਬ,  ⠭ ࠢ   ࠢ 筮  ᠬ।. < 뫠 襭 ଠ樨,     ⠭  樮 ਭ.  뫠 襭   饩,    ᠬ ᮡ ࠧ㬥騬,     ᮧ ᥬ>.

-ᥪ 樮쭮 ᮢ  뭮 ਪ ⨫ [Patrick Purtill] ᮣ蠥  ⥬,  樭᪨     ᠬ ᫮ ஡,  묨 ⠫ 뭮. ⨫ ,   ᮮ ਥ த⥫   ஡  ஢쥬   ॡ.  ஡ 砥  ⮬,  設⢮ 騭, ⤠ ⥩  뭮,  ⪠   ᥣ 20  訬 ,   ६  設⢮    ஡  ஢쥬 (    ॡ)   騭   30-40 .[128]

 NCFA ⠥ ⨢ ᥪ稢 ଠ樨  뭮. ⨫ 㬥  ⥬,  讥 २⢮, ஥  뭮    樭᪨ , 㤥 ⥫쭮 ॢ襭 ᭨ ᫠ 뭮, ஥ ६ ᫥  ⨬.   ⮬,  ਭ  ,  .   ⥩ 襭 ஡ 樭᪨ ,  ᫮ ⨫,  ⠪ 뢠 ॥  ᮣ [mutual consent registries],   ᪨ த⥫  뭮  ॣ ᢮  . ᫨  ஭ ॣ஢,  ᥪ稢.

<  ,  ॥  ᮣ   ,  㦥 㬥訥      ॣ஢,-   .-   [॥] 筮 䨭  筮 㯭>.

  ᮣ     .  ⮣ ⮡  奬 ࠡ⠫, 뭮  ॣ஢,   ⮬᪨ 砥,      ᢮ 뭮]  뭮    ⮣ ⮣ 䠪 ᢮ 䨨. < ᥬ    㯯 প,- ᪠뢠 .-   㯯 襫 50-⭨ 稭, ᫥ ⮣   ஭ ᢮  㧭,    뭮>.  祬      ᢥ? < த⢥  ⥫ ᪠   ᫥>.

 㣮 砥, ᪠뢠 ,  ⨫ 騭,  த ॡ  쥧묨 䨧᪨ ⪠.  筮   騭  뫮 㣮 롮, ஬  । ॡ  ᯨ⠭ 㤠.  ⮣  ६  ⠫ ࠧ᪨ ॡ, ண த  . < ⢨⥫쭮 諠 ᢮ ࢮ ॡ, । [ 宦 ஡]  祭 㤠⢠,    頫   ⥫ 뭮>,- ᪠뢠 . 祢, ਥ ᥬ ⪠  ,  ஡  . <    訫  ண ॡ, ᫨    ⮬>.   ᮣ     ⮩ 騭, ᪮  <㤠⢥> ॡ    ⠬ ॣ஢.

뭮    ᠬ ⮪ <> ᥪ⮢ 襣 ⢠.   ६  ᠬ   祭     ⮩ ଠ樥  䠪  뭮, 設⢮    㦥  ࠧ . <ࠧ ᫥ ⮣   ਥ  㬥ૠ, ,  ਭ  த, 襫      ⨫    >,- ᪠뢠 .   ⪠   ଠ   饩 筮:

 ᫠, ,   㤮ਫ.   ,  ਭ த   .       . ᮭ ᯨ⠫   .    㤭   .    㦥   .     , 祬  ᠬ.   뫮    ᢮ .      ᢮   ஦;      ᢮ 㤥 .

ࠩᥩ  [Briseis Gatto], 뭮  -થ  砫 1960- , 뢠  ⠪:

 த⢥   뭮,   ᠬ ॡ.  㪢쭮   ⢥,   ﭭ  .   ᬥ   ⮬ - 吝,   த⥫ 믭 , ⮬  ᠬ ⠭ 殬, , , ᫨   㤥 뢠,    ᠬ ,   㤥 ⢥࣭, 祬  ⮫쪮 訬 த⥫ﬨ,   訬 த⢥.    ⨬ ᮮࠦﬨ   ⮬,   뭮 ਬ୮    ६,   ,  ⢥न,   ⮦ ⠪   ᬠਢ 뭮,  ,  祬 ᮫⭮ ⨬   த⥫ﬨ,     ਫ  祣-  ⮬ த.[129]

  ᯮᮡ,  ⠪ ࣠樨,  NCFA, 蠫 ஡  ᥩ, 뫮   ⮬  뭮,  ⢨⥫쭮  ᮥ  ᢮ ᪨ த⥫ﬨ.   ⮤ ⨢⠢﫠 ࠢ 뭮 ࠢ  ਢ⭮, 頭 ᪨ த⥫, 設⢮ , ⢥ত NCFA, ᬠਢ  ६  ᠤ 樤,   ⥫  .  뭮   ᪨ த⥫    ⭮襭,     ⥫  㯠.   殢,  , 騥  ⥫  稢 .

࣠樨 த Bastard Nation ⢥ত,  ᮥ   襭. <讥 ⢮    ᥬ,  ᥣ  ଠ.  ࠢ, ।⠢  ᫮ ࠦ,  ,  뭮, 襭   稭 襣 뭮 >,-  ᥫ  [Damsel Plum], ⥫ ।ᥤ⥫    ᮩ Bastard Nation.[130]

< ண 饣 ⮫        ᪮ ଠ樨,-   .-  ,  ࠪ 㤨  ᪨ ୨. ᫨  , ,   襩 ᥬ 뫨 砨 ࠪ 㤨,  ᮢ襭 -㣮 㤥 ࣠뢠 ᢮ ⠭  ࠧ >.

 筮    㯭  ଠ樨  ࠧ  .  web-ᠩ Bastard Nation ਢ ஡ 樨   ᪨ த⥫.   ਢ 뫪  㣨  筨 ଠ樨, த ᯨ᪮ ஢ 樠쭮 客 㬥 , ᪨    ࠤ樮 ᪮ ⥬ ୥.

< 窨 ७     㣠 ୥ ᪮ ᤥ 䨤樠쭮 ⪮,- ᮣ蠥  - [Dawn Smith-Pliner], 騩 ⢮  뭮  ମ.- ᪨  㦥 ᯮ㥬 []  ⮩ 楫 ,  ⢥. ᫨ -   - 筮 ᨫ쭮,  ᬮ ᤥ  >.[131]  , ⮡ ᯮ짮  த ᪮ ⮤, 뭮 -०   ,   .   -०   ᠬ 䠪 ⮣,   뭮.

- ⠥,   ⠩ 뭮  ⨥ ଠ樨  뭮 ந 㦥  訥 20 : <     裡 뭮  ᢮ ᪨ ᥬ쥩.  㬠,  ந   樮쭮 ⠡>.

   .




ਧ ਨ : ᯥ⨢


ࠢ࠭   㦥  20 ,      .   諨   . 樭 ⨣  ᯥ客  ਧ樨   ⮢, १⮢  ᫥  ⠢ ᯨᠭ  祩.   ஢뢠 १ ७⣥᪨ ᫥.   訥   ஢ 㪮  祩.

筮 楫  ਧ樨  ᮧ 樭᪮  㬠  - ਧ ਩ . ᭮ 楯樨,   ᮤঠ  樭  樥,    ਢ,   , ᪨   १  ᫥.    ଠ  ,   室 ஫ ᬮ஢  饬  ਬ砭.  ७⣥᪮ ᫥  ஢뢠  ࠭  ਨ , ⠪    १  ᫥.

६  ਧ樨 ଠ樨  樥 筮 ᫮ 室  䥪⨢ ࠡ뢠 訥 ꥬ ଠ樨.  ᯨ⠫  頥 㭨⮦ ଠ  樥.  १     ࠭ 㬠 ᥩ  ᯥ樠 ࠭.   ᠬ ଠ   ஢  ࠭  ꥬ ᥣ   ᪮쪨 㡨᪨ ⮢  ᯮ짮 ᮢ६ 孮 ࠭.   頤  ࠭  ⠭  ᭨   ⮬ਠ   ࠡ -   稭,  ன ᯨ⠫ 室  ஢ ७⣥᪨ ⥬.

室   ਨ    祭 ᫮ 孨᪨ ᮢ.    室  ᬮ  , 樭᪠   ⥭ 뢠  ஢ﭮ   .   ଠ    ?  ࠧ  ஢뢠  ?   砥   ७⣥᪮ ᫥,  筮 믨뢠 ࠢ  窥 㬠 -  ॥, 祬    .    室  , ⠬   㬠.

   ஡    ᮢ६ 孮  ⠭  묨 ⮤  . ਬ,  ᯨ⠫,   ⨫  ⫥,  ⮢뢠 ᢮   䮭. ᫥ ⮣   ஭  뫠  ,   襢 ࠡ ᨫ,  ᪨  ப ࠭. 㤭  ᯥ樠쭮 ⮢ 訢      , ᫥ 祣 ⥪ 뫠 ⭮ १  .

ந ⮯ ﯮ᪠  Fuji ⥬ ६ ࠧࠡ⠫ ஭ ⨭, ⢨⥫  ७⣥᪨ 砬.    ᯮ짮  ⠭ ७⣥᪨ 㤮  ᯥ稢 ।⢥ ஢ ७⣥ࠬ  뫪   .  ⨭ ⮨   ஢,    ᯮ짮 ⭮,   ⢥   ⮬ਠ.  ᪮ ७⣥ࠬ ஢,   ࠭  ⭮ ,   ॡ ண饣 ࠭  -஫.

  䠪஢,  ⮨ 樭᪮ 㦨,  讥 ⢮  .    稭  । १⮢  ⮬,  樥 室  㣮 ०,     뫠.  1997  ⢮᪠ 樠⨢ -ᥡ㬠  ७ᨬ  ࠢ࠭ [Kennedy-Kassebaum healthcare portability legislation] ⠫ ⪮  ஡   ⥬ ਭ㦤 樭᪨ ०  ਭ 㭨ᠫ쭮 樭᪮ 䨪樮  [universal healthcare identification number].  ஥ 뫠 : ᫨  樭᪨ ०    ᯮ짮     䨪樮 ,   蠭ᮢ,  १   . ᭮ 㬥⮬  ਭ⨥  뫮 <饭 ⨢ 楤>.   ॠ 뫠 ६ ਮ⠭ ᮬ,  ᭮  ⠬ 㯯  ਢ⭮.

 ⮫쪮 樭᪨   ॢ   , ଠ     ᯮ짮  ᮢ襭  楫.   ⥩ ⮤  ᪠஢  ᥩ   樥     ⪨    室 ᤠ । .  ⪨ , ⮡ 騭 ᤠ   (-)  﫠 ࠬ; நନ த⥫  室 ஢  ⥩   ᮤঠ ᢨ;       室 ॣ୮ ஫ ஢ﭮ   ஢ 宫ਭ.  㫨  ᪮ 몥    窥 樥.  樥 頥    室  䨫᪨ ᬮ,       ६ ਥ 砥 室 楤.

 ᯥ樠  ଠ⨧樨   樭  設⮭᪮ 㭨  ஫  [Dr. Harold Goldberg]  ।  ⮪ ᢮ -砬,  ᬥ﫨  , ,   ﭨ ,  楤  樥 ॡ.   ணࠬ 뫠 ॠ, ந諮  㤨⥫쭮: ⢮ ,  室 뫮 ᤠ 樥⠬ १ ᪮稫.

 ⠪   ⠭⭮ ࠪ⨪  樭᪮ ਨ. < ࠧ ஫ ᫥ ⢥न,    । 砫 ਥ 㢥稢   [ ࠢ  室 ]  70%>,-  .[132]




ਧ ਨ : ஧


   ⨬  ⭮⥫쭮 ஧,    裡  ਧ樥 ਩ . ᭮ ஢  1993  Harris-Equifax , 74% 祩 ,   ⥬ < 猪 ᫠> ࠭ 樭᪮ ⠩, ⨢, 26% ,   < ᯥ  䨤樠쭮>.

஡ ந⥪  ࠧ  䨧᪮  ஭ ମ ।⠢. ᪮ ମ    㬠 ⥫.   ⢮    ६    . ⮡ ࠢ   ᥩ  䠪, 祫     䨧᪨ .

᭮ २⢮ ஭ ᥩ 砥  ⮬,    㫨஢,    猪. ⭮,   ஢  ஭   .    樥⮢, ᮡ ,   , ⮡  譨 ࠧ  .  ࠢ ࠧ ୮ ।⠢    ⭮   ࠪ⨪   ⠢  ᬮ ନ,   祫     १⠬ .  ᪮  ୮ 䠩    ६  ⥭ ᯮ  ᥬ ᯨ⠫ ନ,  ஫ ⠭ ୮ ᫮.

 , 㡫  1997  樮 ᮢ⮬  ᫥, 뤥  <஢ ஧> ଠ樨, ࠭  樭᪨ .[133]

1.ᠩ ( 짮⥫ ⥬),  ᮢ <> 訡, ਢ騥  砩 ࠧ襭 䨤樠쭮 ଠ樨.    ⠪  樨,  뫪 १⮢ ୮ ᫥  䠪  訡   । ன ᥩ  樥  㣮.

2.ᠩ, ॢ騥 ᢮     ଠ樨. ᬮ  ࠭ ஡   ஭ ⥬ ࠭ ଠ樨.   ࠢ ᥣ ⢮ ஡  㦠, ᬠਢ  㬥,  ன   . 뫮   ,  ᯨ⠫  ⠪    ⮩ .

3.ᠩ,  ⢫   ଠ樨 諥   楫 .  ६ ।롮୮  ᪮ ⨨  1992      ⮫⮬  Beth Israel Hospital  ⮭ ⨫ ।⠢⥫ , 訩    樭᪨     [Paul Tsongas].  । 娥 죨,         㦭 䠩,  ⠢  ⮬ ᫥.

4.᪨ ⥫, 稢訩   ଠ樨,     ࠢ.  ᯨ⠫   䨧᪨  ᯥ祭 ᭮ ࠭   ଠ樨: ନ ࠧ  ᯥ樠 饭   ⮩, 㤠    ⮫쪮 饭 ᮭ.  ୠ     堫, 䠫訢 ⠡          ஭ .

5. 㦠騥  譨 ⥫, ⠪  騥 ⮬ 樥  ⥫, 騥 ᠭ樮஢   ଠ樨, ० ⥬  뢠 権. 騩    ᪠   ஡,  ன ⮫㫠  㯯:   㦠 -  ।,  ,- ஭  ,  ஬ ࠭ ᯨᠭ ࠡ 祩,  㤠   祭  樥⮢.  ॣ 㬠,   ६ ᢮  砫   㣨;  १  ਥ ६ 﫮    樥.

 讥 ⢮ ⮤,   ᯮ짮  樨 ஧ ᠭ樮஢ 㯠. ਬ,  Beth Israel Hospital 䠩  樥⮢ 祭  VIP.   ⨬ 䠩 ⢫  (  楫),  ⢨襣  㤭 뢠  ୠ;  易 ᯥ樠쭮 祭 祫 室 ॣ 㤨  ୠ  ஫ ⮣,   ⪨ 㯠 .

    ⭥ᥭ  ⥣ਨ VIP?  饥 ६ ᯨ⠫ 砥 䠩  VIP, ᫨   ᭮ ,  㤭 ᯨ⠫  ᮢ ଠ樥   祫.    ⨪  묨 ⠬  .

 㦠騥 ᯨ⠫  童  ᥬ ⠪   , ⮡ ᮪ ᫮ 饭  ଠ樨  ஭  (  ᠬ  ७) .   ,    VI-,   .   ࠪ⨪ Beth Israel Hospital  㢥 樥⮢,      ࠢ.

  ᯥ樠  ⮥ 襭 ஡ ਧ ਩   ᯮ짮 ਯ⮣᪨ ⮤. 뤠    ਨ , 饭  ᬠ-.    饭  ࠭  樭᪨ ᥩ -    , ⮡ ᪫ ᠭ樮஢ .

 祩 ᯮ ⠪ 孮᪨ 室  襭 ஡  ᯮ짮 ਯ⮣䨨.  ,   ७     ஢    樭᪨  祫. 設⢮ , 㬥 ,   㬨  ᢮ ࠢ  ਢ⭮.




㣨 ஧


ਧ ࣠ ਢ⭮  㣨 ᪠,  ⮫쪮 ᥩ ⠭ 祢묨. ᯮ   ஢ 䮭 ᥩ  . , ᫨ 㦠騩 ᪮  㧭  樥,    ஢뢠   த  ଠ - 좠୮   ਪ?  ᫨ ।,  ᫥ 窨 ଠ樨 뢥  ⮣ 㦠饣, 㤭 ।⠢,  ⭮    .

 ਧ ⠪   ᯥ 樥⠬ 襭 ஢ 䨤樠쭮. 㦠騩    㦤   樥,    ஢뢠,-  墠 ஢ .  ⮬,  ⮣ ⮡ ᯮ짮  ⢥   樠쭮 客,   砩 ᫮, ६,  ஥ 樥   ਥ,  㣮 , ᣥ஢ ᯨ⠫, ᫠訬 㤨  ஢. ࠡ뢠  㤥,  , ,  ࠩ   窨 ७ 㤭  .

, ᯮᮡ ஢ 稢  뢠 ଠ  稭,  ன    (53%)  ஢ ᯨ⠫ ,   ⢨⥫쭮 ᯥ 樥⠬  䨤樠쭮. । 㪮⥫ 客   業  - 61,  ࠢ  35%, 騬,    䨤樠쭮.

 祬 稭 ࠧ 冷 ஢  祩? ,  ஥  ⮬,     ଠ樮 孮,    ॠ쭮  饩.  ⠪ ,   孮, 㤭  ᮭ ᯨ⠫  樭᪮ ଠ樨,  ⮨  樥.   稢騥    ⮣,    樥⮢  砩 ९,     寧 ᫥⢨. ⥫  , ⮡  뢠    ⥭ᨢ ࠯,   ॡ  ᮭ    ஫  祭 㯠  ?

  樭᪮ 業 設⮭᪮ 㭨 뫠 ७ ୠ ⥬ 㯠  樭᪨ ,     뫨 뤠   ஫. ⥬ 뫠 ஥஢ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  饭 ᮭ  ଠ樨 ⮪஢  ୠ.  ⥬   ।ᬮ७ ⠩ ⨢, .., ᫨ -  ନ,  ண  襫  ⥬, १ ஥ ६ ⠩ ⮬᪨ ⪫砫. ஢    ୠ ,  ⢥ 祫, 室騬  ⥬   ,  訩 न. ᬮ ନ ,    ஫ ⮣  뫨 ᠭ  窥  ਪ  ନ, ⮬  室訩       室   ⥬   .

   ।⠢ ࠧ  ⮥  ⭮ 襭 ஡  㯠  樭᪮ ଠ樨  ०, த ⮣ 樭᪮ 業. -, ᯥ ⠭ ନ  饭 , ⮡ ⮫쪮 ਧ ᮭ      樥⮢. ᫥ 祣 ⠭   ନ  , ⮡ 뢠 ࠦ 祫, ⢨襣 .  ⠪ ⥬    㦥 ᥣ.




८᫥ 樭᪮ 㦨  樭᪮ 客

設⢮ ਪ楢    ᢮ 樭᪨    ᠬ  ⠢ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.   樭᪨ ꥤ  客  樭᪠ 㬥 ᥣ    ᫮   <몠 >.[p37] 客  , , ᫨  㤥  ᫨誮 ,  蠭 ⮣,   樥 㤥 墠祭 㣮 客   稭 ⮣,       ।⥭,    ࠡ,  ⮬,  ⨣ 65-⭥   ⥯   ணࠬ Medicare - ਪ 樠 ணࠬ 樭᪮ 客   . 客   ᮪ ⥪ ⮢  ᮢ த 䨫᪮ 樭᪮ 㦨  뢠   ࠭ 襢  祭 ⠤  , ,     ண஢, 樥 㦥 㤥    䨭ᮢ ⢥⢥.

᫨    ࠪ,  ᯥ 客  ᯮ 樭᪨  ⠪ ,  㪬 ᯮ ᯮ⨢ ३⨭,-  ⢥ 業    ਡ뫨. ᪨ ⠪ 業  ᭮ ࠡ⮩  客   ஢.

 ,  ᯥ⨧ ⮨  業 ᮮ⭮襭 ਡ뫨  㯫稢 ⮬ 客    客 믫.   ⭥   㪠,  १ ⥬ 筥, 祬  ଠ樨 ᮡ 客 .     ࠭祭  ,  ଠ   ᯮ짮.  客  ⠥,  祫  襭 ஢   ஢ 宫ਭ ⭮  㯯 襭 ᪠  ᮮ⢥⢥ 蠥   客 ⠢;  客  筥  ⠢ 筮,  ᨬ  ꥤ  ⢠ .

設⢮ ᠭ  ⮩  ஡   襭 ⥬ न쭮  ⥬  樭᪮ 客   .  ⮣ ⮡ ਢ뢠 樭᪮ 客   (ࠪ⨪,   ६  ஫  ࠡ⭮ ⮩  業ࠧ  1940 ), 樭᪮ 客   ਢ易  ᥤ  ࠦ. ⥩訩 ᯮᮡ   ਬ樨  樭᪮ 客 砥  ਭ⨨  㤠⢥ ⥬ 樭᪮ 客.  ᤥ    稭 ᪨, 뢠 ꥬ ⠫, 饣  客 ਨ,- ਨ, ࠡ뢠饩 죨  ⭮   ﬨ ஢  ﬨ  .

 ⢨  쭮 ८࣠樨 訬 ᯮᮡ  ॡ⥫  ⠭ ஧筮  ॣ㫨஢ - ஧筮 ⥫쭮 客 ਨ  ।饭   砥 襭 ਢ⭮  ॣ㫨஢, ਧ  ॡ⥫    ⭮襭  樭᪨ ०ﬨ.  न쭮 ᬥ ⨪  㤥  .





7

㯨 אַ ᥩ!



⥫ Privacy Journal    ⨫  ७樨  -થ  -१⮬   㯭 થ⨭  ਪ, 祫,  ᢥ   ठ 襭 ᥬ  ⮢ 祪,     ਪ楢. ⮬  ᨫ -१,  ਪ   ᤥ, ⮡ ⠭ ⮪ ⮢ ,    ⠫  .

< ,  ⮢   ,     >,- ࠢ -१ , 㤨 ६ ७  㡮 ⢥.

 -१ ᮫⭮ 筮, ᫨ ᬠਢ   樨 த.   ४ ।  襬 ⮢ 騪, ⥫䮭 , 뢠騥     ﭭ <ᯠ>, 騩  ஭ ,  ஬, ᫨    । ⮢  㣠.    .   - 㣮    ⮩ .

 ⥯ ஡㥬 ᬮ    㣮 ஭ -  த. ᫨ 祫   । த⮬  㣮,  窨 ७ த,-  .   ଠ த   뫠 ,  ࠢ  ২   ⮩.

 䠪⮬ ᢮ ⢮ < ॡ⥫> ਢ  ⠬ ६   த.

訩 த ,  ᯮ ४஢ ᮡ  栬 襪.  થ⨭  ⭮   㪠.  ᥪ ,  ஬     ஢, 稭    諥   ⮢ ન, । ⢮ 訡 . 訥 த   ⮢ , ⮬   -   ।⢥ 頥  祭 ਡ.  ⮣ ⮡   ,  ࣠   ,   ⢮ ᥡ 묨 । .

襭 ᭮,   ॡ⥫  த   - ⠭ ⮪ ⮢   ⥫䮭 .  졠   ।⢠.   ॡ⥫    ࠭祭  ᨢ થ⨭ ⨪.  થ⨭  롨ࠥ 㣮 室.  ᯮ ஬ ࠭ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  稢 ᢮ ४ .  ᯮ ⮤    筮 ଠ樨  த⥫  , ⠪    塞 襭ﬨ  ᠬ ஦.  ६  ⮬, ⮡  孮    ६  ᯮ짮  ४ 楫, ⮡ ॡ⥫   ᪠ 蠭   நନ஢묨.

ࢠ訩 - ஫ થ⨭ ॢ⨫  ,  稢 ௮ﬨ  ⠭筮 稢 ᫥.    筮  ᭥  稭, 騭  ॡ  .    ⠭.




થ⨭  ਧ 


१ ᪮쪮  ᫥ ⮣,   㯨 ᢮  ,  稫 ⮢   থ ப  ⮭, ।襣  易  , ⮡ 㤨, 㤠   ஢ ᡥ०. ᪮쪮    稫   ⨫騪 , ।襬   ६  ⪨ .

 ப,  㡮 稫    ਤ: ଠ  ᤥ    饤㯭.  ᫨     થ⨭  -  ࠧ ⮨ ⮢ ન.   ࠡ⠫ : ᫥ 㯪     뫮 ᢮     থ,      뫮 , ⠪    祣 뫮 .

 ४ । ⠢   饭 ᨫ.  ᬮॢ   ,   訫,   㧭  ᮭ ଠ  ,  ⠫ ᯮ짮   㫨஢  . ᪨ ᤥ  뢮  ᭮  ଠ樨,  ⠪   訫 .

। 楫 㤨ਨ ᯮ     ⨫⨥,   ࠪ⨪ ⠭  뭮ᨬ,   稭 ᯮ짮  襥 ⢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  襭 䥪⨢,   ਢ⭮    ⮬   訡.

    [Cindy Rowan].

 ᥭ 1995       ⮬쭮 ਨ. < ⫨砫 ⬥ ஢쥬,   ⠫ 騩 讪,   ந諮,- ᪠뢠    1996 .- ᫥  ᬥ  ᨫ 뫠    > ( ନ,  -[134]).

 㢥  ᬥ  ⨫ ஬ 뭮 設,      ᥡ ।⠢, 設,  祣   ஫஢. ᬮ  ࠭⨨   ( ⨪ ࠢ⥫⢠ ),  ଠ  ᬥ  㤥 ᯮ짮 ⮫쪮  ७ࠢ , 祭 ᪮ ଠ ⠫ ᯮ짮 ࣮栬  த .

 㯥ଠથ ନ ᫠   ਢ⢥ 쬮  裡  ॥  ਫ 㯮  ᯫ ᨭ ᮪.  ᫠  10%- 㯮-᪨  㯪 梥⮢.      ⥫⢠ ᫠  - 筮,  ᬠਢ   ନ, 祬   40   ஬ .

ਬ୮  祭 㣮 ᫥ ਨ   [Jane Seiss],   , 砫 १ ⮢ 騪   ᯮ樨, 祬 ᠬ .  祬 ?  窨 ७ த殢,    祭 ᯥ⨢ ࠪ⨪. 室  ᨨ  ஬ ࠢ (த  ணࠬ஢ ᢮  ஢ ஫),  ⥭樠쭮     ⮬  祭  .  ஭  뫮  㯮  易  !

   ⭮ 砥  쬮, ᫠  襩 , 稭﫮   . < ⠫  ⮣.  祭  ,-  .-  㬠,  , 㯠騥  ᯨ᪨,   뢠  ⮬,  ﭨ     ->.

ਪ᪠ ⮢ 㦡 頥,  42  ᮢ  ᬥ ,   砥 , ᯮ ⮫쪮  뫪 ,    த த⮢. ਬ砭   :

 :  ⮣   ஢,     ᬮ  ७ࠢ  . ᫥    ﭭ  㤥 ।⠢   ⤥ ࠦ,   .  㤥 , ⮫쪮 ᫨ ⥫       . ᯮ  3576  ନ஢ ᯮ⮢  ⥫  ᬥ . ⢥ত 39 U.S.. 404.

,   㢨, ⥬, ਧ  ⮪ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,    㣨 ⥬  ,  筮. ⮢ 㦡  ⥬  祭 ᫠ , ⮡ ⮫ .      ⮩ , 樮쭠 ணࠬ ᬥ ᮢ [National Change of Address Program]  ᠬ  ন ⥬  ﬨ,   뫠 ⪨ म 権 <⮢ >   ਪ᪨ ॡ⥫.

ଠ  ᤥ      ᬥ  - ᥣ    ࠢ⥫⢥ , ࠢ୮ ᯮ㥬  થ⨭ 楫. 㣮  筨 ଠ樨 -   ॣ樨 ࠭ᯮ ।. ᯮ   ⮩  The Polk Company,   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥   ᢮ ᭮  1870 .

 த⮬ Polk ⠫ -ࠢ筨 稣, ஢  ஦ ⠭.  ᮧ ⮣ ࠢ筨 砫  ⮬, ⮡  㯠⥫, 騬 冷   ⠭樥, ᮢ襭 㯮 冷  㣮 ⠭樥.  ᪮  㦨,     ࠡ, த ଠ  ⥫ த ࣮栬, ।騬 ⮢  .[135]  XX  Polk ⠫ 㯭訬 ॣ஬ ࠭ᯮ ।.  ⮬쭮 ஬諥 Polk ᯮ    室 ᪠ 楢  砥 뢠 ⨨ 設  ᮮࠦ ᭮.   ⠫ Polk    થ   襣 ⮬ ᤠ묨 ९ ᥫ, ⮡  த栬 ଠ   室, ⨫   ।⥭  ਮ⥭  ⮢஢.




 ,   ਮ⥭


 砫 XXI  થ⨭   ਥ  ᮭ 室. த   㤮⢮ ⮫ ⥭樠 ⮢, 뫮  ᯨ᪮ 뫪  ࠢ⥫⢥ .  ᨢ  ᮭ ଠ  ᮧ  ⥬  䨪樨 㠫 ⮢.

 設⢮ 㯥ଠથ⮢ 㤮 묨 ᪠ࠬ,  뢠 -   㯪  뢠     .   । 㦠饬 ⥦ ,  䠪᪨   䨪樮 ,  砥 㯪 訬 . த ᯮ  ଠ  ⠢ ஡ ⮢ 㯠⥫.

 ᠬ ⮫  ,     ᥩ ⮩ ଠ樥. ,    ᮮ, ࠧ    -   ᭮ 뫪 㯮  Pepsi-Cola ﭭ ॡ⥫ Coca-Cola. < 㤥 ᯮ짮  [ 㯠⥫]  ।   ⮢, ⮡ ⥬ ⨬㫨஢    㯮  襬  ⥬ ।⠢ ᪮⮢, ᪨  㣨  饩>,-  ଠ  [Norman Tsang], ४  થ⨭ Star Market  ⮭.[136]




᪠ 窠 㯥ଠથ


設⢮ 㯥ଠથ⮢     ᥣ ᪨ ணࠬ. ࠡ⠭ ᯥ樠쭮  ﭭ 㯠⥫,  ணࠬ  ⠬ ᪨  ஡ ᫥  㯮.  㯥ଠથ⮢ ᯮ  ଠ  ࠧ 楫, ⠪  ᬥ  , 業ࠧ  થ⨭.    ࠭稢 ,  㯥ଠથ  ᯮ짮  ଠ. ⥭ 楤,  㯠⥫ ᪮짭  㯠  ࣮ , ⥬ 㯨  ᪮ ⨢ 㯥ଠથ, ,  ᢮ ।, ਣ஧ த ଠ  ⮬,    㯠  ⪨, ⮡   ९  㤥. [  ।⠢ ᮬ  (Chris Reilley), Reilley Design]

 䠪᪨   ࠭ -  ⮥ .  ਢ窨 ⤥ 㯠⥫  祭   楢,    孮ﬨ 㠫쭮 થ⨭,   㧭,  䥪 뢠 ४ 樨  । ⥫. Star Market  ᯥਬ⠫쭮 ।, ॡ  ᪠ 10-業⮢  50-業⮢ 㯮-᪨  ⨬㫨஢ । ⥣਩ 㯠⥫  ᮢ襭 㯮.   筮 ⠭,  㯮 ਢ  㢥祭 த,   - . ᫥ ⮣   롮筮 뫠 㯮  ⥬ ⠬,  㯮 ⠢ ᤥ 㯪,    ᪨ ᥬ . ଠ  ஢ ࠭権 ॢ頥 ⢮ થ⨭  ਠ  ᯥਬ,  ஬  㯥ଠથ 㯠  ஫  .

 㯥ଠથ   ࠧ , 祬  宬᪨ ᫥. ᭮ ⮢᪮  1999  Privacy Journal,    㦥 ᥣ:

ਪ᪮ ࠢ  졥  મ⨪ 㦥 ᨫ   ଠ樨  ﭭ 㯠⥫ Smith's Food & Drug Centers  ਧ.   [Robert Rivera]  - ᪠뢠,    ।  ᫥   㯥ଠથ Vons  ।    ⮬ ,  㯥ଠથ ᬮ५    㯪  ,  ᯮ    㤥   䠪,   㯠  ,    ࠢ     㯥ଠથ.

 Lees Supermarket  ⯮,  , ,  ᯮ  ଠ  । 㯠⥫ ਢ祪 ᢮ ﭭ ⮢  ⥬, ⮡    㦤.[137]

 㯥ଠથ⮢  ९த  ଠ  ᢮ ᬮ७.  設⢮   த  થ⨭ 祭. ਬ Absolut Vodka  ਮ ᯨ᪨ ⮢஢, 㯠   ,  ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨   ४  Absolut,   ᯮ ४ ᪮쪨 ७ ६.    ଠ    ।⠢ 客 , 樭᪨ ࣠   ࠢ⥫⢥ ᫥⥫. 㣮 ਬ ⮩ ଠ樨 -  ᫥   ஢  ⮫. ଠ  ஢ ࠭権     ࠢ⥫ ᪨         ஡,     ࠧ襭   㯠 ண 襣 .     ᫨誮  廊  ୮ ஦?  ॢ   室 ஢  室?  ᮢ 祪 ᪠  ⮬.




 ⥫,  


 1995   稫 쬮  졮  ⢮     㯭 ᯨ⠫ ⮭ - Beth Israel Hospital. 砩   ,    ⮣  頫   ᯨ⠫.  ᠫ 쬮 㪮⥫ ᯨ⠫    ,   ᯮ  樥⮢  ᡮ ।. ४  䮭 ᯨ⠫   [Holly Glick] ᠫ  ⢥:

 㬠,  ᮣ,   ⠪ ०,  Beth Israel Hospital, 祭   ᡮ஬ । ࣠ ⥬. ࠧ㬥  ⮬ ᫥  ਮ᪠ 뫪 ᮢ ࠪ᪨ ᥬ ,  뫨 - 訬 樥⠬, 筮,  ᪫祭 砥,   㬥૨   㣨 稭    .

    த⨢묨, , ᪮ 죨    , ⠪ ࠪ⨪ 㤥 த. ᫮, ⠪  뢠 ,  祭   ᬠਢ    - 筮,     ᨫ  ᯥ祭 䨭஢   ,     稢,  ᪮ ⥫쭮 襣 ०,  稢  筮.[138]

   㬠,  ⠪ ࠪ⨪  ᯨ⠫ ࠢ쭠, , ᮣ᭮ ஢  1993  Harris-Equifax ,[139] 66% ਪ楢 ⠥,  <ਥ> ᯮ짮 ॣ樮  ᯨ⠫  ᡮ ।.

થ⨭  ᯨ⠫ Beth Israel ᪨ 梨, ᫨ ᬠਢ   権 ਢ⭮, ᪮ ᯨ⠫ 뫠     砩 ,   ᢮ 訬 樥⠬.  祫 砥 ⠪ 쬮, ᠬ  ᥡ  㦥 ࠧ蠥 ଠ  ⮬,   祫  樥⮬ ᯨ⠫.      㦠 ᫥⢨  祫, 饣  ᠬ 䠪 祭  樭᪮ , ਬ  騭, ᤥ襩   ⮩ ᢮ 㦥, ன ஦    砥, ᫨  㧭,   頫  . ᫥⥫ 祭 <⨠᪮ 㪨> ⠪ 쬮  ⠢ ᮡ ᯮ⢮, ᪮  ५ ⨢ ⭮  樭᪮ ࠪ⨪,   ⨬ ⥫⢮   .  䥢ࠫ 1997    [Lois Rutherford] 稫 쬮  졮  䨭ᮢ , ᮢ  ,  室 祭  ࠪ  ᯨ⠫ Alberta (⮭, ). < ᥣ  稫 ,   㬥   ⮬ ᯨ⠫>,- ᪠ .[140]

   ᯮ ᥣ  થ⨭.   㯭   ⮩ , National Data Corporation, 㯠 ஡ ଠ  믨ᠭ 楯   30  ⥪  ᥩ ࠭.  ࠡ뢠  த ଠ楢᪨ ,   ࠢ,  த  ࠧ ॣ  ९  ࠢ  ७⠬.  ଠ 頥  ᯮ ⤥ த  ஢ । ९⮢ । 祩. ଠ楢᪨  ⠪ ஢ ४ 樨, ࠢ ।⢥  ॡ⥫, ᪮ ,    襩 ⮩ 믨뢠 ९,   樥.




த ᠬ  ॡ⥫

 ⥩ ⠫ ᯮ짮  થ⨭ 楫. १ ⥫  ४  誮, ᮧ ਥ஢  ⥩ ᠩ  ୥, த 諨 䥪⨢ ᯮᮡ 室 த⥫. ਬ,  砫 1990-,  900- ਨ ஢[p38] ⨫ ४, ਣ蠢 ⥩   ⨬ ࠬ,     ।⥫쭮 ᠭ  ᮭ 䨫쬮,   த⥫ 砫  १   㣫쪨 㬬.  ࠪ⨪ ⠫  ᫥ ਭ  1992  Telephone Disclosure and Dispute Resolution Act,[p39] ᫥ 祣  த ४稫  ୥,   祬  ॣ㫨㥬 ।,   ᯮ짮 ⥩.

< 孮  த栬 ᫥   ⥩:  ᠩ        ন>,- ᪠   1997  ᯥ樠 㯮祭 ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮ ᪮ ४ [Roscoe . Starek]:

ᯮ ᭨ -    ॣ樮 ,      祭 㯠  ᠩ  室    ஧ ਧ,-  ᠩ  ᮡ 祭 業 થ⨭ ଠ.   ଠ  த栬  묨 ⠬ 室  ॡ⥫     祭 筮 ࠡ  ⠬  ᮮ⢥⢨   㠫묨 ᠬ.[141]

  ந室,  ४, ᬮ    <97% த⥫,    ୥⮬, ,  web-ᠩ    ଠ     ⥩,  ⠪ த  ।⠢   ६ 짮 쨬 栬>.    ࠭,   筮 ଠ  㤥  ।, 72% த⥫  ࠢ ⨢ ⠪ ࠪ⨪.

⥫   ⠢ ᭮   ⮬,  訢 ଠ   :   ⮣ ᯮᮡ ⫨  web-ᠩ  쭨᪮.  室饩 ୠ⨢  㤠⢥ ॣ㫨஢ ਨ, ⠭ ⠭⮢ 饣    , 㯨 .

ਬ,  1996  ࠫ쭠   ࣮ 砫 ᫥ ⥫쭮 web-ᠩ   KidsCom.[142]  ᠩ ᮤঠ ਢ⥫ 䨪  ᯫ , ,  ⮣ ⮡ ,   뫨 ॣ஢.  뫠   : 室 뫮  ᫮ ,  ன 㪠뢠 ,  ஦, , ⠢ ᥬ,  ⥫ ,  ᪨ ⥫,  몠쭠 㯯, 审, ᯮᮡ 㯠  ୥, ४  ஭ ,  ஭  த⥫  㭮,  ⮢ , ᪮ ᮥ  ୥⮬   饩 .  楫  맢 让 १  : ⭨ ࠢ ॡ⥫ ਫ,  KidsCom ᯮ짮 ⥩,    ᠬ⥫쭮 ਭ ᭮ 襭  ᮮ饭 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.  ᠩ ⢥ত,      , ⮡    ஭ ணࠬ 㦡  ९᪥  ।⠢  㠫쭮 ࠭ ᮤঠ. ᫥ 襣  ᫥ KidsCom ஢쭮  ᢮ ⨪, ᮧ ⨢ த⥫᪨ ᮢ  ਭ  ਢ⭮.

ਬ୮    ६,  諮 ᫥ ⥫쭮 KidsCom,  The Walt Disney Company ⨫ web-ᠩ ⮨    ஢, ⢥ 楫 ᮧ ண 뫮 த த⮢   ᡮ થ⨭ ଠ樨.  ⫨稥  KidsCom, Disney  ਭ ⪮ ⨪  ⭮襭 ࠧ襭   筮⥩ ⥩. ⨢, <⨪ ਢ⭮>, 㡫  ᠩ  1996 , ᨫ:

<।⠢  ६ ॣ樨 ଠ   ᯮ짮  થ⨭  ४ 楫  The Walt Disney Company,  ⠪ ᮢ⭮  㣨 ﬨ,  롮 The Walt Disney Company>.[143]

 ⮬ ந諮  祭 :   ⮢ ਭ ,  筮 ਧ 묨 ᠬ 㦠 㯮ॡ  ⨯ KidsCom  Disney. ਭ  1998  <   䨤樠쭮 ⥩  ୥> [Children's Online Privacy Protection Act] ॡ  web-ᠩ⮢ ⪮ 㪠,  ଠ  ᮡ  ⥩  13     楫  㤥 ᯮ짮.  ⠪ ॡ  web-ᠩ⮢ 祭 <⢥ত ࠧ襭 த⥫>, .. ਭ <ࠧ㬭 ᨫ>  ⢥ত ⮣,  । 쬨  ଠ樨 ࠧ襭 த⥫ﬨ.

᫥ ⮣    ਭ, FTC ਭ﫠  ⨢  GeoCities, ।⠢饩 㣨 ⨭,  Liberty Financial Companies, 饩 web-ᠩ⮬ < > [Young Investor],  稭 ॡ ⥫⢠.  ६ Disney  㣨 ᠩ  ⥫쭮 ⥯  ᢮ ⠪⨪. ⢨ FTC ,      ⠭ ᮮ⢥饣 ஫, 筮   ਢ⭮.  ⢨ FTC  ⠪  ,      ⠭ - ஫. ᬮ    ᯮ짮 ⥩  થ⨭ 楫 ⠥ ᥣ 쥧 樠쭮 ஡,    ⨬  , 祬 뫮  .




 


ᯮ짮 ⥩  થ⨭     ⮪  < >  ᫥ ६.  ࠪ⨪  㪠    㣮 ⥭樥, ⨢襩  થ⨭,- ⪮ ७ ࠧ 㢥 ⢮ ४  㦠饬  :

   ⥫䮭-⮬ ,  ⮣   ᮥ , , ᪮॥ ᥣ,  ⪨ , ᮤঠ騩   ⮣ ⮬: <ᨡ,  ,   ᯮ짮 ⥫䮭 Bell Atlantic>;

㯨   Massachusetts Turnpike   㦨   ४ ⠢騪 楫᪨ ९;

 ࠩ    ᯥਬ  㯮, 騬  뤠 ⮬ 祪;  ⮫쪮 ⮬,  ⠪ ४ 㢥稢 ꥬ த,     ஢ 㯠⥫, 뢠 묨,   業  ଠ  ;

ᥣ ४  ⠢ ।⢮ ୮ ⠦   ᯮ⨢ ॢ  ࠦ 頤   .

 ன⢮, ᭠饭 ᯫ, ⥭樠쭮   ४ 設. Microsoft ࢠ 諠  ⮩ ண  1997 ,  ⨫ 맢訩  ᯮ஢ Internet Explorer 4.    ணࠬ ⠫ <⨢ ࠡ稩 ⮫> [active desktop], 頢訩 ४ ।⢥  ᯫ 짮⥫᪮ . 筮 ࠭ ⮢ ⥫䮭  ஢     ४   ଥ .

  થ⨭  ꥤ : ४   ਥ   祫.  㠫 室 ॡ 㠫 室  ࣮,    砥   襭   ᮭ ଠ.




 楫 אַ  :  אַ થ⨭


 ࠧ 㯥ଠથ, 䫮   稫     묨?     㧭 ⮣ 筮, ᪮॥ ᥣ,  稫  ଠ    , ন ࠢ⥫⢥ ணࠬ ᬥ ᮢ.

    ᬥ ,  뫠  ᨭ 業,    , ᫥ 祣 ଠ ⠭ 㯭 㯭訬 ଠ, 騬  થ⨭.  ⭮襭  ⨬ ଠ ।⢥ ᯮ짮     אַ થ⨭,   ࡪ [Wayne Orbke], ।⠢⥫ ਪ᪮ ⮢ 㦡, 騩 ஬  ࠣ⠬ ணࠬ.[144]  ଠ ࠧ襭 ᯮ짮  ଠ   ᮡ⢥   - ᮡ⢥,  ⮬  砥 楫 ணࠬ.  થ⨭  ন ᢮    㠫쭮 ﭨ, ⮢ 㦡 ᭨ ᢮ 室  ⠢ म ᥬ   ᠬ, 뫠    .

 ᪮ த 㦥  ଠ樥, १砩 㤭   㯮ॡ,  ।饭  ࠢ 㤠⢥ ॣ㫨஢. ᬮਬ  Metromail,   ꥬ த, ॢ騬 250  ஢,  뫠 ਮ⥭  Experian  ५ 1998 . Metromail 뫠   㯭 ࠣ⮢ 樮쭮 ணࠬ ᬥ ᮢ.  ⥫쭮 ஫ ᢮ ᯨ᪨ 뫪   ᫥ , ᨬ  䠩 ணࠬ ᬥ ᮢ.  童 訥   砥   ᯥ樠 ᯨ᪨, 뢠 <ᯨ᪨ ᥫ> [New Movers file]. ⥬ Metromail த   ᯨ᮪ ᬥ  ࠩ   ⥫⢠ 祫.

᪨ Metromail 墠⠥ ᢮ ⢮ 㫨஢ ଠ樥.   :

᪨ ᥫ  Metromail 쭮 室  ,  ⠭, 㤮  ୨樥 , ।⠢ 㣮த , ᪨/樮 ஥⮢,  । .  ⠪  ४᭮   ᯮ짮  ࣠樨 ᪨    ୠ,  ⠪ ⠫ࠬ, 騬 ।⢮   饭 ᯨ᪮.[145]

 1996   業 <ᯨ᪠ ᥫ>  Metromail ⠢﫠 60 ஢   .  ⥫ 10 ஢     Metromail 䨫஢ ᯨ᮪,     䠬 ᥬ, ॥堢  ﭨ  50 ; ,  ⮩ 㣮  ᯮ짮   ନ, ᫠訩 ਣ襭 襩   .   殢, 祬  죨, 뫠 ਣ襭 , ॥堢訬  ᥤ 㫨?




樮 窠 த


 த ⠢  ॣ樮 窮. ਤ᪨, ᭮ ।祭  祪 砥   ந⥫  뢥 த.     ᢮ ॣ樮 窨 ᠬ, ⢥ 楫  - ஥   થ⨭  .    楫 , ந ᮪릨,  ᮢ  室 襩 ᥬ? [  ।⠢ ᮬ , Reilley Design]

 Metromail    Experian  ⮬ 1,5 ठ ஢, ᭮ ⥫쭮 ன 砥  ᫥ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.  ଠ  , ।   ଠ, Experian   ᬥ   宦  ⮢,  䥪⨢ ⢨     䥪⨢ ᥨ ⮢, ।⠢ । , 祬  뫮 ࠭.

⠭ ।⭮ ଠ樨  㣠   த  Experian । ᠬ ப ᯥ ଠ樮   ᥬ .  ᫥饩 ⠡ ਢ ਬ 讣 ᫠ ।  ଠ樮 த⮢.[146]

㣠 - ᠭ

Analytical and consulting services - ।⠢ ਪ᪨     䥪⨢ ᯮ짮 㦥 饩   ଠ樨

AutoCredit - ᯮ  뤠   ࠭ᯮ ।⢠   祭 ஢   ७

Bankruptcy - ୠ ,   ।᪠ ⢮

Bullseye Report - ᯮ  ४஢ ଠ樨, 訡筮 ।⠢ Experian

Business Credit Extract -   ⮢  ᪮ 

Business Credit Prescreen -   ᯨ᪠ ⮢ 뫪 , ࠢ 稢 ᢮ 

Business Owner Profile - 롮ઠ  楢 ।⨩

Business Profile - ।⠢ ।⭮  ।

Collection Report - ᫥ ⮢,  稢

CollectScore - 業 祭 ⮢  㪠 ⭮ ⥫騪

Connect Check - ।⠢ ⢥ত 䨪஢    <ࠦ 筮>

Consortium databases - ⠫   㯠⥫  稪 ୠ

Credit Profile report - ।⠢ ।⭮   ॡ⥫

Credit Decision Expert - ஢ । ⮢

CU Decision Expert - ।⠢ 㣨  ⮬⨧஢ ਭ 襭  ।⠢   । ꥤ

Demographics Band - ⢥ত 筮 ,  ᥭ  ।  

Employment Insight report - ।⥫ ⡮ ⥭⮢  ࠡ⮤⥫

Experian Segmentation Systems - 㯯஢   ᯥ⨢⮢  ᨬ  ࠧ ,ਢ祪, ਠ쭮 ﭨ 㣨 ⥫

Experian Quest - ।⠢ ⮬⨧஢ ⮤,    ⢮  騬 ⠬

FACS+ - 饭    ᮪ ஢᪠  १

Fair, Isaac - ।⠢ ஢ ॡ⥫᪨ ।⮢

Flood certification services -䨪 梨 ᢮

ID Profile -  ⮢,  ᥭ  ।  

INSOURCE -  ᯨ᪮ 뫪 ᪮ ଠ樥, 묨  ᮡ⢥, ᯨ᪠ ࠭ᯮ ।, १⠬ ᮢ  .

Intelliscore - ।⥫쭠 業 । ᪮ ⠢ ३⨭ ।ᯮᮡ  

Lettershop - ।⠢ 㣨  ᮢ ⮢ 뫪

List LinkT - ।⠢ ꥬ ᯨ᪮ ॡ⥫  ।⠢ אַ 㯠  樮쭮  ॡ⥫Experian.

List processing services - ।⠢    㠫쭮 થ⨭, 稭 ᡮ   稢   뫪 ।. 㣨 <ᠭ ᮢ> [Address Hygiene] ᪫祭 ⮢ ࠢ,  ⠢   뫪, ࠡ  ॥ 樮쭮 ணࠬ ᬥ ᮢ, ४஢ ᮢ  ⮬᪮   ᮢ.

List rental fulfillment and maintenance - Experian  뢠  ࣠,   ।⠢ ଠ  ᢮    ,樮쭮 <>  ଠ樥  ᢮  

Market Share - ᪠  CD-ROM ⥬ ᪠  ⮢  ⠪  ࠪ⨪,   .

National Risk Model - 䨫஢  ⮢  । ⥯ ᪠

Platelink - ।⠢ ଠ樨  ॡ⥫   ⮬

Point-of-Sale Analyst -  ।⮢  ⮢  ᮢ ⠬

Postal optimization - ᯥ稢 ᠬ  ⮢ 室

Prescreen - ᯮ  ନ஢ । ।⥫쭮 ଫ । 

Profile Summary -  ।⭮ ਨ 

Property Link - ।⠢ ஡ ଠ樨  饩   ᮡ⢥

Prospect Locator Series - ᪠  CD-ROM ⥬ ନ஢ ᯨ᪮ ᮢ  ⥫䮭 ᯮ짮    ⥫䮭த

RecoveryScore - ஢ 祭 ⮢    ⠭

Revenue Opportunity Indicator - ஢ ࠭ ⮢  ⥭樠쭮 室

Segmentation systems - ஢ ⮢

Signal - ।०    騬஡

Skip Locator - ᫥ ⮢, 㪫  ⮢

Smart Quest - 䨪 ⮢   ᮪ ⥭樠 ਡ뫨  ᪠

Vehicle Financing Solution - ।⥫ ⡮    ७ ⮬

Vehicle Ownership Tracking System - ᫥ ᬥ 楢 ⮬


ࠢ⥫⢥ 娢      筨 ଠ樨. 쬨   쭮  ਨ  த DM News   㢨 ४, । ࠡ⠭ ᯨ᪨  ஢   த᪨ 㯯: <ᯠ ᥬ  쬨>, <ᯥ⠡ 稭>, <ਪ ᪮ ந宦, 뢠騥 ⮢  >  ⮬ .

-᪠  Kleid ⭮  த  䠬 稪 ⠪ ⨦ ୠ,  Architectural Digest (। 室 ᥬ,  - 82100 ஢), New Yorker ( - 71100 ஢)  Vanity Fair ( - 99400 ஢).  ? Response Media Products  ⫠  த  ᯨ᮪  132761  騭, ᮢ蠢 㯪  ᢠ ᠫ  ᫥ 12 楢. ᪨  80 ஢   ,   । 業  ⮬ 뭪. ᪨   ᯮ짮  ᠬ⥫쭮, ⠪   ⠭  㣮 ଠ樥  ஢ ᮪ થ⨭ .

 ਪ  㡨  ᪮࡫ ⮩ ࣮.      ⠭묨 ࠢﬨ, ᯮ㥬묨 㦥  30 . ࢮ  ,     ᢮ ࠭,  ४⥫ ⠪  ࠢ  ᢮.  ᪠  1972   ࣮: <᪮     襭 ,   ࣠ ਭ㦤    ଥ,   ࠦ᪨ ᢮  >.[147]

 ⢥ ண ࠢ ਢ 㬥,  ,  ॡ⥫ 㬠  த ,  -   १⮬. < 98  ਪ楢 ᮢ 㯪  室     ࠢ ᢮ 祭 ।  ᮮ⢥⢨   ᠬ>,-   ⫨ [Connie Heatly], 訩 -१ 樠樨 אַ થ⨭ [Direct Marketing Association, DMA].[148]  ⢥ ⥫쭮 ⥫⢠ DMA ਢ ଠ  ⮬,   ᫥  ⮤ אַ થ⨭ ॡ⥫ 뫮 த ⮢஢  㬬 240 म ஢. 筮,  DMA, ᫨ ॡ⥫ ॠ  ।  ⮫ ᪫,    ᯮ짮.




 楫 ਬ


 ᮦ, ஡  ࠭稢 ⮫쪮  樠樥 אַ થ⨭. த ᮭ쭠 ଠ ᯮ  ⥫થ⨭ 襭, ꥬ , ᮣ᭮  ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮, ⠢ 40 म ஢  . 㫨  㯠 ,  ⥫䮭   ⠪ ,   ।ਭ⥫. ᫥ ⮣  ᯮ ᮭ ଠ, ⮡ ⥬   ᯮᮡ ⠢    ᢮ 죠.

襭⢠   ਮ ୠ樮 ࠪ. 줠  [Hilda Hanna], ࠦ , 砫  ⥫䮭     1996 . 訩 ᪠,   뫠   ⠫  먣ࠫ   ࠧ 945  ஢.    : ⮡   죨,   ᫠ 19  ஢  㯫 ᪨   ⠬ ⥦. ,  죨 㦥    ଠ,  﫠 㪠 㬬  ᢮ ।⭮ .  먣  ⠫ ⠪    襫.  ⮣  稫 㣮 ⥫䮭 ,   ᮮ騫,   먣ࠫ ன ਧ (128  ஢)   ᫠ ⥫쭮 4  ஢   祭. ᫥ ⮣     ⨩ ࠧ.

< 룫拉  ,- ᪠뢠  ᯮ Washington Post.-  த  :    ਫ :   ⮣ :   ᪫  ,   ਫ,    [ ਧ],  ⮣  [⥦] 㩤   ।⭮ .  ,   ᫨誮 稢.  71 ,    뫠  [] >.[149]

 ਢ  襭, ⮬  ⥫થ⨭ 襭⢠ ᫥ ⠬ ⭮⥫쭮 ᫠,    ⠪ ஢,   .  ⮣, <ࠡ> ⮫쪮  ਪ᪨ ॡ⥫ﬨ, ஫   ᪠ 㤥 ᫥  ஭  ⥩.   ⮩ 稭,  ।⠢⥫ ᪨ ⥩,   ﭭ  ⪨ 奬 襭⢠ < ﭨ>.

砫쭮,   㭠த ஡ ⠭  쥧  裡   業  㭠த   ६饭 設⢠  襭  ୥.




᪫祭  ࠡ


୥  樠樨 אַ થ⨭.   [Connie LaMatto] ⢥ত,    த ࠧࠡ⠫ ᯥ樠 ⥬   ⥬ <।> ,     ।.  ⠪ 뢠 㦡 ⮢ ।⥭ [Mail Preference Service] - ন DMA ᯨ᮪ , ,      ।  .  諨   DMA   졮 㤠   થ⨭ ᯨ᪮   㤥   ᥩ 襭 . DMA ন   ᯨ᮪   㦡 ⥫䮭 ।⥭ [Telephone Preference Service], 楫 ண -   襭 ।  ⥫䮭.

 ਨ  த 㦡 ⮢ ।⥭ 뢠 < ᪫祭>.  ⮨  ⮬,  ࣮     죨, 뫠 । ,  騬  ; ࠧ 襢    ࠭,     ᫠.  ᪫祭  ࠡ  設⢠ ॡ⥫.   祬:

 ॡ⥫     ⢮ ᯨ᪮ ᪫祭. 㣨 ॡ⥫ 蠫   ᯨ᪠,   ,    ;

 ࠧ,   ॥,  室   ᥡ   ᯨ᮪.  ந室 ⮬,  , ந騥 ⮢ 뫪, ᯮ ଠ 樮쭮 ணࠬ  ᬥ ᮢ  ४஢ ᢮ , a DMA - ;

ᯨ᪨ ࠡ  ਭ樯 <  祣>.  १  ॡ⥫ ᮬ,   ᥡ   ᯨ᪨, ᪮ ,   ய - 稢 ।;

 㤠  ᯨ᪠  ⢨  ;

  ॡ   ⮢ 뫪  ᯮ짮  ᯨ᪨, ⮬  ⮣   .

஢  1996   ⥫⢠   ଠ樨  ⥪ ⥫쭮    [Paul Schwartz]  ਤ᪮ 䠪  㭨  ઠ    ࣠ [Joel Reidenberg]  ਤ᪮ 䠪   뢠,  ⮫쪮 53% 童 DMA ᯮ 㦡 ⮢ ।⥭  ࠭祭 ᢮ ⮢ 뫮! ( 뫮   1999 ,  DMA  ⠫ ॡ  ᢮ 童 易⥫쭮 ᯮ짮 ⮣ ࢨ;   ࠭ 㤨,  १  ⨪ ࣠樨.) <  砥 設⢮ ਪ楢      ᪫祭   ᯨ᪮.   ࠦ  䥪⨢,  ᯮ⥫쭮   童 DMA,    ᯮ짮 ⮣ ࢨ>.[150]   ᫥ ᪠:

७ 楤   ।ᬠਢ - 饭   砥, ᫨   襭 ⨪ .  ⫨稥  䨭ᮢ  ⥫㭨樮 ,  㦠,   , ,  ।ᬮ७  ண ७ ᠭ権.[151]

᪮ ᯨ᪨ ᪫祭  ஢묨  ᪮   ।ᬮ७ ᠭ権  뫪  , ⨢訬 ᥡ  ᯨ᪨ ᪫祭, 㤥    ᯮ짮 㦡 ⮢ ।⥭,- ⠥   ᬮ७.  ࠪ⨪  த Experian   ᢮ ⮢    ᯮ짮 ᯨ᪮ ᪫祭  㤠 䠬  ᯨ᪮ 뫪,    ᭨ 蠭 ᯮ짮 ⮣ ࢨ.

ᬮ   㤭, ࠧ ᯨ᪮ ᪫祭 ﭭ  -  988  祫  1989   3,2  祫  1995-  3,9   1999-.  ᪠箪 ந襫 - 襭 ᭮  ⨢⠬ ਢ⭮  ୥,      室 ॡ⥫ ଠ   ,  ࠭稢 ࠤ樮묨 ଠ樮묨 .

,  窨 ७ ⨪, ᠬ  <᪫祭> 筠. ॡ⥫    த殢  ᫠  .  ࠢ  <祭>,   <᪫祭>.   ন  뫪 । ॡ⥫, ᫨ ⮫쪮  ᠬ  ᨫ  ⮬. ॡ⥫ 筮  ଠ  :    web-ᠩ,   ⥫䮭 800- ਨ    <३ 窨>  ᫥ ࠭ ୠ. 室  ⥬ <祭> ᤥ ࣮  䥪⨢, ࠭ ஬   ᨫ 饥 ⢮ ⢨  㯠⥫  த殬.




।ਭ  ⢨ ⨢ אַ થ⨭


 ஡㥬 ।⠢  宦  筮 謠 饥, ᫨ אַ થ⨭ 㤥 ࠧ ⥬  ⥬:
  ꥧ  -  ᢮    ⮣ ⨭.   ᢮ ࠣ, ⮡  ,  ࠢ  . ⨢,  㦨,   ஭ ⮢ 騪 .  讬 [p40]  5  ࠭,     ᫠  ஭ 㯮  15% ᪨  ஥ , ᫨      ६ ᢮ .

 ﭥ  ⥫䮭, ⮡  ࠣ      த 襣 .     㤠. ᫥  㡪    㤮,   ।⠢⥫  United Airlines.  ᮮ頥 ,        ३  American. < 㧭  ⮬ १ ⥬ १ࢨ஢ ⮢. ᫨  쬥   ᫥饩     United,  ⨬    American   ⢥ ਢ⢥ ઠ ।  㦨  ->.

। United ᫨誮 , ⮡  .   祭 ᫥ 15   室   ⮫쪮 ९  ࠭祭,  蠥    American. ᬮॢ  ,  㦨,  㦥  10    ᮢ頭.   ⮫쪮  ⠥, ⥫䮭  .  ।⥫ ᢥ稢  襩 , ⮬  ᭨ 㡪.

ਧ!   ࠧ   ࠣ ( ணࠬ஢ ᢮ ⥫䮭   뤠  ଠ樨  ⥬ ।  뢠饣 ).  ᯥ ᮮ ,   Cathay Pacific  ᯥ樠쭮 ।    - - . < ४᭠  த  ,-  .-  ᥣ  999 ஢>.

᪮쪮     ⠫    . , 騥 ᥬ, 稭  <  -᪮ ⨫>   稪  ᠬ,   訬 , । ⠢  ,   㤥 室  ।饩 .    ⠫ ⠭ ᯥ樠쭮  :      饭 ,    ਪ  ⥫ ४᭮ 룫饩 .    ⠫ ࠦ ஡  讪,   ⠢    ⥫  筮 㯠. (祢,  ⥫  ⥫   ⮬,  த     ⢨.)  ⥫ ,  ४,     ஡ ࠬ   樠  樠 襩 .

 ﭭ થ⨭     ⮬  ४頥. 稢 ,  㦨  ᠤ筮 ⠫ ४ ।ᠭ  ⢠, ஥  ᪠, ⮡   ᮡ.   ,   ஢  ᯨ । 饣 ᫠ < ⥫䮭>,  砥,   ᢥ稢  ᮭ ४ ୮   -᪢. ᫨    14 䥢ࠫ,   40% ᪨  砫 .

宦,      襬 ⢨.  㤠   ,    襩  ?  祭 ᫥ ᪮쪨    ᭮  ᭮ 㤥 ᯫ뢠    .

   ୥   ,  㦨,    ࠫ.


  ,  த  ᢮ த.  ⮨ 㭨権  ⠭   饩 㯭 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨   祬 ॠ쭮 ,    ६   ।ﬨ 㦥  訥 .     ஡ 祫, ᮢ饣   -   ⮣ ⨭. 祭 ᪮   ࠭,   ᥣ ,  ᮯ୨       죨 - אַ ᫥⢨ ᭨ ࠭ᯮ 室  樨 뭪.

 ,    ⨬ .




⨪ 1: ᯥ ᢮ 


אַ થ⨭    室 楫 -   த ஢,     , ᪮॥ ᥣ, 㯨.   ᯮᮡ  ᥡ  થ⨭ 設   襩 筮.

⭮, ᠬ  ᯮᮡ  筮  . 㯠 ⮢   죨.  ਭ   <㡠  ஦> [Birthday Clubs]  ணࠬ  ।⠢ ᯥ樠 ᪨.  ⥫묨,   ⠥    ᮭ ଠ, ⠪   ஦,    ⥫䮭.

     ୥,   web-ᠩ 祣  ⮨ ᫥   ६饭.  ଠ樮 㯥ଠࠫ ᫥ 室  ᫥, ,  ᢮ ।, ਢ  祭 襭 ।  襭 ਢ⭮. ᪮ ᮭ쭠 ଠ    । १ ୥,    ⠭ ᮧ ⥢ ⥪,  ன    ⠭ ० ࠡ.

ࠢ  ਢ⭮ 砥 ࠢ  . ⢥ ᯮᮡ   ࠢ - ᯮ짮 .




⨪ 2: । ᭮  頩  


  쭮   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥,      ਤ᪨ ࠢ. ⮡   ⨢ ॠ樨 ⢠,    ࠭ ᢮ ⥫쭮  ᥪ.  訫  誥  ⠨.

।⢠ ᮢ ଠ樨     䥪⨢ 㬥⮢  졥  ࠢ ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨 㯭묨 ᯥ⠡묨 ﬨ. ୠ ᫠  १ <ந  ਢ⭮> ⥫쭮 ॢ訢 ⥭樠 室,      ᢮ ⮢. ਬ,  䥢ࠫ 1998  Washington Post 㡫 ଠ  ⮬,   㯭   CVS  Giant Foods Pharmacy த ଠ  த   楯⠬, ᯮ  ୥,  , ࣮-஬諥  Elensys.  ,   ᯮ짮 Elensys   뫪 ᢮ ⠬ ⮢   室 த 楯.  Washington Post ⠭,   ଠ 뫠 ⠪ ᯮ짮   אַ થ⨭  ᯮ짮 ᮢ⭮  㣨 ﬨ-ந⥫ﬨ ⢥ ९⮢. Giant Foods ࠧ  ,  ४頥  ࠪ⨪; CVS  栫,  ࠩ  砫,   筮  㦤 뫠 ਧ   ⮪   ⮢.

ࠪ⨪ ஢쭮  ࠭祭  墠쭮,   ᭠. ᪮  ⠪ ࠭祭  ॡ , ਭ        ⪠  .    ६      뢠  ⨬.

⢥ ᯮᮡ ࠭஢ ஢쭮 믮  ⨪ ᮡ ਢ⭮ -   ⨢ ,   ॢ  襭 ᢮ ਢ⭮.  ⠪ 㯨  祫   , ᫥ ⮣    CVS 嫠. ⢥ত,   稫 ।, 㡥襥  ᯮ짮 ⢥ ९, ந Glaxo-Wellcome, Inc.,  । 㯯  CVS, Elensys  Glaxo-Wellcome  <饥 襭 䨤樠쭮 ॡ⥫  樥>.[152]
㤥   ࠧ , 祬 ⮥ ਢ祭 .  砥 먣 ᮧ 易⥫ 楤, ஬  ᫥  㣨 .[p41]




⨪ 3: ஫  ⮤ ᫥


 ୠ ।⠢   ଠ  ᢮ 稪,  ᥣ ⠢  ᯨ᮪ ᪮쪮 ᯥ樠 , ⮡ ᫥ ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨. 筮 ᯨ᮪ ।⠢  ⭮ ᯮ짮.  祭    ᯨ᪠ ⠭,  ᯮ짮  ᯨ᮪   ࠧ   楫, ⫨筮  ࠧ襭. ਬ, -१   થ⨭    ᯨ᮪ ᢮   㪠  ᢮ 誨 . ᫨ 쬠     ⠫    ᫨    ⥫䮭  ᮮ,   먣ࠫ 10  ஢ (   祭 室  2500 ஢  ⢥ ), ᪮॥ ᥣ,  ⨬ ᫥ 㤥 ࠧ⥫⢮.

 襥 ᫮ ॡ⥫ ᯮ   ᠬ ⮤.  ,  뢠  ࠧ ୠ, ᫥  ᢮ , ਬ Robert Johnson, Bob F. Johnson, R. Fox Johnson,  ⮡ ᫥,   ६頥  ଠ樮  .  ॡ⥫    ᤥ  ⮩ ଠ樥, ࠧ  । ᭮ ਭ  ਨ ࠪ⨪.   ६ 祬   㤥 , ⥬  㤥  ६.




⨪ 4: ᯮ 騥    ਭ 


   ஬ ⢮ ਭ ,  ਢ⭮. 砫쭮,  祭  ॡ⥫   ᢮ ࠢ. 㯭 ᥣ ।⢠ 㦥  ᯮ  졥 ⨢ 㯮ॡ થ⨭ ਨ.  ⠪    訡 諮  ᯮ짮 ਭ ࠭   蠡  ਭ .

 1960- , ᫥ ⮣  䥤ࠫ  稫 । <⮩>, 讥 ⢮  ⠫ ਮ ⮢ ᯨ᪨  ਪ᪮ ࠢ⥫⢠    ᢮ ଠ樨 [public records laws]  ᯮ짮  ᯨ᪨  뫪  । ਮ ୮.   䥪⨢ 訫  ஡  1970 , ਭ 䥤ࠫ쭮 ⠭, ॡ饥  ਪ᪮ ⮢ ⠬ [US Post Office Department] - ।⢥ ᮢ६ ⮢ 㦡[153] - ⠢  ন  㠫쭮 ﭨ ᯨ᮪ ,     ᥪ㠫쭮 ᮤঠ. 襭    ᯨ᪠   ᮡ 㣮 ⢥⢥  ᫠襣 .  1971   500   ⨫ ᢮   ᯨ᮪.[154] ᪮ થ⨭ ࠪ⨪ ਨ .  ⮣ ⮡ 뫠 । ᥪ㠫쭮 ࠪ  ᥬ ᠬ,   ᬮ 㯨, ᮢ६  ࠭稢 뫪 ⠫  ⥬ ,   訢.

 ஡ ୮䨨 ⠥  -   ୮䮢, 뫠 襭 <ᯠ>  ஭ ⮢ 騪, 稢 ४ web-ᠩ  ஢ ᥪ㠫 ᮤঠ.    稭,     1960-  襭  ࠡ⠫  ᥣ.
 ⥫⢮   㣮 ࠧ 襭 ४ -  䠪.  1991   ਭ <   ⮢ ⥫䮭 ⥩> [Telephone Consumer Protection Act[p42]], 訩  뫪 ४  䠪  祭 ।⥫쭮 ࠧ襭  䠪-.  ⨫ ⠪ ᯮ짮 ⮬᪨ ⥫䮭 ன,   ॡ⥫  ந뢠 ।⥫쭮 ᠭ ४ ᮮ饭.  ࠧࠦ騥 䠪 ᥣ ࠪ᪨ 祧   ॡ⥫.

஥ 1991  ᮤঠ ⠪ , 饥 ࣮栬  ,  騬  ᪨ ।  ⥫䮭.   ᣫ㯨.  ⮣ ⮡ ⢥न ᮧ 饭樮쭮 ᯨ᪠  窠, . . ᯨ᪠ ,    ᪨ , ⥫ ⠢  ᬮ७ ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  裡  㭨 [Federal Communication Commission, FCC] ਭ⨥ 襭  襬 ᯮᮡ ॠ樨 ⠪ ᯨ᪠. FCC  ᢮ । ⪮ ஢ થ⨭ ਥ.  筮  FCC ਭ﫠 ࠤᠫ쭮 襭,  㤥 < 䥪⨢>, ᫨    ᢮ ᮡ⢥  ᪫祭,  ᮧ 饭樮쭮 ॥.  १  ਪ᪨    ⥯   , 饩 ᪨ ,        , ..          ⠢   ⨢ 襣 . ( ⮬   ᢮ . ᫨  砥 ᪨   ,  饩 <ᯨ᮪  窠>,   ।    㬬  500  1500 ஢.   १ Private Citizen   [Bob Bulmash]  1996  ਪ᪨ ॡ⥫, ᯮ  , 稫  54  ஢.)

<  ,  ⮩ ࠭ ॡ 䥤ࠫ   "窠",   । ,- ᪠ ⨢   ࠢ ॡ⥫  १ Junkbusters Corporation ᮭ ⫨ [Jason Catlett].-     ᯫ⭮  ᢮  ( )  饭樮 ᯨ᮪     10  ஢   ᤥ    ᪨ >.[155]

  ॡ ਭ  , ॣ㫨 ࣮.  ⥫⢮  ।  ⮬, ⮡  ॡ⥫  ଠ樨  ࣮, ।ᬮ ᮪ 樨  襭 ਢ⭮ ॡ⥫  㣮 ⢥⢥  㪫  ᯮ .

 ⢥ 襩 ࠢ 窨  ᯮ짮 ।  1965  ᬥ ୥ᮬ ஬ [Cornelius Gallagher] ,  ⠪    ਭ.   ॡ, ⮡ ᮧ ஬ ⮢  砫         ⥫䮭,  ஬   , ⮡  㤠  ᮮ⢥饣 ᯨ᪠ 뫪. ᬮ७  ᮮ⢥⢨  ॡﬨ XXI   ⮣     ਬ   ஭ , ⠪  ᪨ ⥫䮭 .

 ⠪     ஧ ᪨ ⥫䮭 , 室  ࠭. ⥯ ⮩ ஧ ⠥  १  ⮨ 㭠த ⥫䮭 .  㦥 ࠡ騩 ,   ஢  ঠ 㯭,  ᫨ 襭⢮ < ﭨ> ந室  ࠭. ⥬     ७ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡ ஢ ᪨   ࠭,  ᪫祭 砥,  뢠   㪠,    ਭ ⠪ .





8

  襩 ଠ樥?



 । ᥬ   㢨,   ࠧ ᯮᮡ ᡮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨, ᯮ짮   襣 ࠧ襭,    ⨢ .     ,  ᠬ 訬 襭  ।饭 ᠭ樮஢    ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ਭ⨥  ⥫ ⮢, ᯥ樠쭮 ࠧࠡ⠭  ᯥ祭 ࠢ  ਢ⭮   .  㣨 ᮢ६ ᫨⥫     ᠬ 䠪⮢ 室  㣮 襭. <  㦤   ,-  ,  ࠫ ஥, ⮫  । ᥣ譥 ଠ樮 ⥫樨.- ,   㦭,  ᬠਢ ᮭ ଠ  ꥪ ࠢ ᮡ⢥, ᫥ 祣 ᯮ짮 騥   ᮡ⢥  ।饭 ᠭ樮஢  ᯮ짮>.

 ⭥ᥭ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ᤨ ࠢ ᮡ⢥  ਭ  ।, 祬 , ᪮ ଠ न쭮 ⫨砥  㣨 - ਠ -  ᮡ⢥. ਬ   ਭ樯 ࠤ樮 ࠢ ᮡ⢥   ਢ   ᫥⢨.

<  ⫨稥 ଠ樨  㣨 ਠ ᮢ 砥  ஢ ਢ ᯮᮡ ७,-  . . () -. [. . (Jack) Rogers Jr.],    Equifax, 饩 ᡮ஬ ଠ樨  ॡ⥫.-   ஭,   த       ६ ⠢ ᥡ.   থ ,  業 ⠥  ⠥  ᯮ짮,   ᭮ ᮬ  ஢ 樨  ࣮>.[156]

ଠ  ⮫쪮 ⫨砥  㣨  ᮡ⢥,   頥 ᢮ ᮡ⢥묨 .  砫쭮 設⢮   뫨 ਭ   ⤥   ⨬㫨஢  ⢮⢠,  ᫥   㫨 ⠪ ࠧ,  ⥯  ᪫ 㦠 ᠬ 㯭   ௮権. ᬮ      룫  ਢ⥫ ।⢠   筮 ⠩,  筮     誮,  ਭ ਢ⭮  ।, 祬 . ࠢ  -   ࠭ ਢ⭮. , 祬 ,   த, ।  ᤥ,   ﭮ.




   ᢮ ?


 堬 [Ram Avrahami] ⠫,    ᮡ⢥ ,   ᠬ     ⭠   500 㦠騬  ⮨ 310  ஢. 堬 ⨫  , ⮡ ⠭ ࠪ⨪   த     ࠧ襭,  நࠫ. 堬 ⥫  ᭮ ࠢ,   ࠥ 樮쭠  אַ થ⨭,  ன  ਫ ஢.  ⮣   ᨫ  .[157]

祭 堬 砫  䥢ࠫ 1995 ,   稫   ४ 쬮, ਣ蠢襥    ୠ US News & World Report. १ ᪮쪮   訫 ਭ ।  ᫠ .    稫   ࠢ 祪  15 ஢.

   堬 稫 㣮 쬮   - । Smithsonian Institution    ୠ Smithsonian.    ࠧ 堬  ਭ ।,  ᠫ Smithsonian Institution 쬮,  ஬ ᮢ, 㤠  㧭    . ⤥ ࠭ Smithsonian ⢥⨫,   <ਮ५ []   US News & World Report  ⭮ ᯮ짮>.    㣨 ୠ US News & World Report ॣ୮ ।⠢   ଠ  2,2  ᢮ 稪 㣨 ଠ,   த ⮢஢  .  ,  堬 뫮   100  ,  US News & World Report த Smithsonian  8  ஢.

堬  祭  ⮬ ⮢ ஬.   ⮣ ⮡   쬮,  㯠 設⢮ ਪ楢,  訫  ⢮.  ஢  ᫥  㧭,    ࣨ,   ,  , אַ 騩 ,  ᤥ US News & World Report. ᭮ ࠧ 8.01-40  ࣨ:

 祫,  ,   ࠧ ᯮ짮  ।⥫쭮 祭 쬥 ࠧ襭 ⮣ 祫:  ४ 楫   த,    ⨢ ⤥쭮 祫,   ௮樨, ᯮ짮  ,   ࠧ,  楫 ४饭 ⠪ ᯮ짮;   ⠪    饭  ⪮, ᥭ  १ ⮣ ᯮ짮. ᫨ ⢥稪 ᮧ⥫쭮 ᯮ짮 ,   ࠧ 祫 ᯮᮡ,  饭      , ,  ᢮ ᬮ७,    ᠭ樨.

 㣨   筮 ⥫⢮.   뫨 ਭ ᫥ ⭮ , ந襤襣  1905   -થ,  த⥫ ॡ   ⨢ Rochester Folding Box Company    25  ஡  㪨 ⮣䨨  ॡ.  Rochester  砫 ࠧ襭 த⥫ ॡ.  ।   থ   , ᯮ  ⢥ 㬥 㡫   XIX  ᮬ  ७  <ࠢ  ਢ⭮> [The Right of Privacy].  ᥬ நࠫ .[158] 稭:   -ઠ  뫮   <ࠢ  ਢ⭮>,  ࠢ ᥬ ஫஢ ᯮ짮 ⮣䨨  ॡ. ᫥ 襭 ⮣ 襭 ⥫  ᥩ ࠭ 뫨 ⮫쪮 ᪮࡫,   뫨 ਭ   騥 ࠪ⨪ ᯮ짮   ࠦ 祫  ᪨ 楫  ࠧ襭 ᠬ 祫.

堬  ⠪ US News & World Report  <८ࠧ>, ..  墠  ᯮ짮 ୠ    ᮡ⢥ 楫  祭 ।⥫쭮 ࠧ襭.  짮 㣠 ᪮  ⠭  [Jonathan . Dailey]  ૨⮭,  ࣨ.

    樥   ࣨ,   ᮮ⢥⢮ 稬 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ਪ  XX . 堬 ⨫   玲, ᨢ ᪠  ⢥稪 100 ஢  ⢥ 樨  1000 ஢  ⢥ . 筮,  ,  ᢮ ⢨ﬨ 맮  ᪮ ⨢ ঠ⥫ ᯨ᪮ ⮢ 뫪,- ,    ⠢  ⪠  <ᯨ᪠ ᪫祭>   ࠧ襭 ॡ⥫  ।⠢   㣨 栬.

  祭  21  1995 .




᭥ । 㤮


 প 樠樨 אַ થ⨭, US News & World Report   ᢮  ,  ஬ 㡥⥫쭮 㬥஢ ᢮ ࠢ. ।  㬥⮢ 뫨 ਢ ᫥騥:
ୠ ,  த, ᤠ  ७   ଠ樥  ⮢ ᯨ᪮ 뫪  <饯ਭ묨 ﬨ  >   . ᪨,  ,  ࠢ ࠢ⥫⢥  (⥫⢮ ࠢ⥫⢠  - US Government Printing Office) <ﭭ ࠪ⨪ த  ᤠ  ७ ଠ樨  ᢮ ᯨ᪮ ⮢ 뫪>,  業 <ਡ⥫쭮 85 ஢  1000 >. 筮 < ⠬  ⢠ ࠢ⥫⢠  ࣨ,  樮 ᮢ  ⮢,[p43] ।⠢ ᢮ ᯨ᪨ ⮢ 뫪   ⤥  ⥬ த  ᤠ  ७>;

ୠ , , ᫨ 堬  ⥫  ᪨ ।,    ॣ஢ ᢮   ਭ饩 Direct Marketing Association 㦡 ⮢ ।⥭,  ,   ᮡ⢥ ,  ᤥ;[159]

ୠ ⢥ত,  US News & World Report 䠪᪨ 稫  堬   ॡ⥫ [Consumers Union], 饣 Consumer Report,   㣨 92500 ,  ୠ   ७  ᢮ ᮡ⢥ થ⨭ . US News & World Report  ࠬ  થ⨭  筮 ७ ଠ       60-100 ଠ.  堬 - ᥣ    ;

ୠ ⠪ ⨫,   ᭮  Consumer Reports  쪨 ⨪,  稪  ⬥, ᫨   , ⮡   ᯮ짮 - . 堬   ⠢   ⮬ .  筮,  ,  US News & World Report ᫠ 堬 ।  ᪥,  ᠫ. <  堬 砥   饥  ।,  뢠,-   ୠ.-    稫 ।, ஥   ᭮,  ⮣ ⮡     ২,   >.

 8.01-40  ࣨ < ।ᬠਢ  த, ᤠ  ७   ᯨ᪠ ⮢ 뫪,- 砥 US News & World Report.- ⥫⢮ ࣨ   ਢ⭮ ।祭   ,    ࠧ 뫨 ᯮ짮  ४   ࠧ襭, ।⠢  ࠢ  >.  ⨫    졮    뭥 㤥 ।  ⮬,  த, ᤠ  ७   ᯨ᪠ ⮢ 뫪   堬  蠥 ⥫⢠ ࣨ.

ਤ᪨ ९⥫⢠ த  6 䥢ࠫ 1996 ,  騩    뭥  ⠭.  㤨  ஭  ७  [Karen Henenberg] ,  ᬮ७   室   ᤨ樨. 堬       ⥬ <ࠢ ࠢ> [Courts of Equity], ᪠ ,   , 騩  ଠ ⭮  饣 ࠢ [Courts of Law].  让 ਤ᪨  ᪠  ⥫ﬨ   ।  ࣨ.   砥,  ६ ਮ⠭ .




堬 ⨢ ०, 㭤 2


堬    28  1996 ,   ࠧ   饣 ࠢ,  졮 ᥣ  US News & World Report ᯮ짮  .  ॡ  ⢥ 饭 ࡠ      ᯮ짮     騩 室, 祭 US News & World Report  ᯮ짮  ,  5  ஢ .

     ᯫ   䠪.    , 騥 ᫥ ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨, 堬 ᪮쪮  ᠭ ᢮ ,  뢠  US News & World Report.  Ram Avrahami  ᠫ  Ram Avrahani.

讥 ᪠  ᠭ   ⠭⭮ ࠪ⨪  ਨ ⮢ 뫮  ᫥ ६饭  ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.   堬 ᬠਢ  㤥   1996 , ਭ  [Catherine Hagney], -१  ࠡ  ⠬ US News & World Report, ᪠  ६  ,   ﭭ 砥  Catherine Cagney  ᢮ 譨 ᮬ  ᯨ᪨ 뫪, ᤠ ୠ  ७ 㣨 . <US News & World Report  ।⠢ ଠ ,   த ୮  祭   ᮬ⥫ ⥫쭮,- ᪠ .-  ᯮ㥬  -⪨ ⮡ 㡥,    뢠   ᯮ  ଠ  㣨 ⨯ 뫪>.

    뭥 ⠭, , ᠢ ᢮   訬 ᪠ﬨ, 堬 ᮧ 䨪⨢ 筮,       ࠢ   ࣨ. - ⮩ <䨪⨢>    [William . Newman] ⪠ 堬  㤮⢮७ ᪠   .

襭  뫮 .  ६ 蠭    ᪫      ⭮襭  堬. ਬ,   ⠬ US News & World Report   䠪 筮  堬,   ⭮襭  魮 . ।⠢⥫ US News & World Report  堬    ५, 樮 ,  ᯮ짮   㤥   ਢ祭   ᥡ ᮡ ᪮ .  ⮣,   ᥪ ᫥ ⪨  ஭  堬 த஢ ࠧ,   ᮭ쭠 ଠ,    ᮢ, த  㯠 ୠ.

堬 ⨫  樥  客  ࣨ,   뫠 ⪫.

ணਢ      , ⨢ ਢ⭮  ਭ 祭 ⥫쭮 襭. < ᯥ筮 ⭥    ⥫⢠ ,- ᪠  ᭮⥫ Junkbusters ᮭ ⫨.- ᫨  堬  [ ] ᯮ짮 ᯥ樠   , ⨯ " 7",    먣>.

⫨ ,  㣨 ᯮ  堬:

< -०    ᪨  㣨   ⠪ ⥫⢮,    ࣨ.  䠪 ⮣,  樠 אַ થ⨭  ஬   ᮧ 魮 ,   ⮬,    ਫ   먣 堬.  㬠,    ६,  - 㣮 㯨    ⮢ ᪮,  ,  ன  ਫ ஢, 㤥 㦤  ᢮ ᭮ ࠢ.  㤥 ⠪,   ࠢ   ஦     ३  騬 冷   >.[160]




⮨   -


, ⫨ ࠢ. 筮, 樠 אַ થ⨭ ந  ⢥   ᮪ ⠢  1996 ,  ᥭ  -   [Richard 3. Cody] ⠫ ஢ , ᤥ訩   த   ᮢ    ᮣ.

 㯨  ⥫쭮 樠⨢  - 筮 樤.   ࠫ   ,  ᪠,   ⠫  ,  <த  ,   ᪨    ᮣ. []   ࠢ த    -,  㤥   ⠢>.[161]

DMA ⠪  , ᯮ짮 ᢮ ⠭ ⠪⨪ , ,  樮쭠  אַ થ⨭  ⮬ 600 म ஢      , ᫨   㤥 㯠  த,   㣨 ⮢. <᪨   ,    ᫮ ᥫ ਪ ਮ⠥ ⮢ ⠪ ᯮᮡ,- ⢥ত 訩 -१ DMA  ⫨ [Connie Heatley].-   ,     襭 ,  設⢮  㯠 -㣮>. 筮,  ⠪,  㯨  堬, ᠢ  US News & World Report.[162]

  - ᭮ ਬ砭   堬,   筮      祭. ।  ⠪   뫮 ਭ.  뫮 ࠧ,  㪠誠.




  ᮡ⢥


 ᥭ஬   DMA   ஬ ஢.  ⮣ ⮡ ࠧ   த ,     業஢, ⮡   砫 ᫥    ᯮ짮.  ⠪ ⥬  筮  ਭ  ।, 祬 .

<ਢ⨧ [ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨]   ⥬,   먣    ,  , 稢訥    ଠ>,-   ᮭ [Pamela Samuelson],  ᪮ ࠢ  ୨᪮ 㭨  ફ. ᫨ ᬠਢ ᮭ ଠ  । ࠢ ᮡ⢥,  ,  ந ᫥饥:

< -   ଠ, ᫨ ⮫쪮  ।    ࠢ  ᢮ ଠ,   ࠢ  .  , , ᫨   ⠭ ।,       ।  ଠ,   ᬮ ⨣ १,  ஬  ६   ।,- ᯥ 楫⭮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ࠢ      㯮ॡ>.[163]
 ⮣ 室, 筮,   㣨 ஡. ᫨    ᯮ짮  ,  ⠪  㦭 - ᯮᮡ 室, ⮡ 믫 죨. ࠪ᪨ ⥬ <-᫨-ࠢ-->[p44] ॡ ᮧ ᨢ  , ᮤঠ饩 ଠ  ,   ᪨ ४  ⥫  ⮢.    ᠬ  ᥡ ஬ 筨 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,  㤥 㯥  ࣠樨, 饩  થ⨭.

㣠 ஡ 砥  ࠧ ᠬ 믫.   ॡ⥫ [Consumers Union] த 92   US News & World Report,  稫 ਡ⥫쭮 8  ஢.      祭 襢.  砥   ॡ⥫ ⮨ ⠢ ਡ⥫쭮 8,6 業   稪. ᫨  ᠬ  믫稢  <᪨ ᫥>,     業,    , ୠ ⥩   ணࠬ  ᢮ ࠡ,-  5  15%.  ᪮쪮  ⮨  ? 㡮  - .

ᯮ  楯 ᪨ 㦤, ⫨ 뢠,   ᥣ 業  8 業⮢    ⢥ , ⮬  뭮 ७饭 ଠ樥     ॡ⥫. ꥤ, ⠥ , ॡ⥫  ࠭ ⠢      業, ⠪   童 ﭮ ⥫  﫨 業     1970- .   ⥩ ᮧ    த    ࠧ襭 ॡ⥫.

樠 אַ થ⨭ ,    த  ਢ  ࠧ襭 ਨ  ⮬   ஢.  楬ਥ. 騥      㣨 ⥩ ࠭ ଠ  ᢮ ⠫.   ᯮ짮 ४  , ୠ   ⥫.   ᮧ web-ᠩ.   ।⠢ ᪨  ⠬, ᫨   ⠫  ⥫䮭 800- ਨ.     ࠧ ᢮ ४  믨᪠  । ⠬    㣨 . ਨ, 饩 ठ ஢,  ஧ 㯠,  ᫨   ࠭祭 騥 ਢ⭮ 뭮 孮.

 㬠,  ⭨ ਢ⭮ । ᬠਢ ᮭ ଠ  ꥪ ࠢ ᮡ⢥, ,  㢥祭 ⮨ ࠡ  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥 ਢ  ४饭 ⮩ ࠪ⨪.  쭮 , ᪮॥ ᥣ, ࠡ祥 襭 祢 ஡. ஡ ⮨   ⮬,   祣    த  ; ஡  ⮬,      த   ࠧ襭. ᭮  ஢  1996  Harris-Equifax   ᮡ ਢ⭮ ॡ⥫,[164] 73% ਪ楢 , ⮡   뫨 㤠  ᪨ ᯨ᪮ 뫪,  ⮫쪮 44% ,  ᮮ⢥騥 楤 . ᫨ 㯫-த    ਥ 設⢮ ᥫ,  ⠪ ࠪ⨪   㯮冷祭, ࠭祭  饭 .




   ᢮ ?


    ᢮ ,  㤭 ,     ᢮ ᠬ, ᢮ 㪠  .  殮  ⮫⨩ 㦤騥  죠 騭 த ᢮  ⮢⥫ ਪ.  ᫨ - ०    ,      ⥫ ०.

ࠢ ᮡ⢥   ᫥⥫쭮, ࠭   ⪥ 襣 ⥫, ⠪  祢.   殢  襩  - ᪫⥫쭮 .  । 梥    ,  , , ᮢ ਭ  ᫥ ⢮ 㣨 ࠪ⨪, ⠭  -   .       ᢮ ᪮ ଠ樥?

᪠ ଠ   ⥬, 祬 ⮨  -  ࠩ ,  .  ᪮  ⤥   ᯥ 樨,  ᭮  ᫥⥫-孮  ࠧࠡ뢠  樭᪨   ⢠. ᮡ  ᠥ   । ﬨ, ,        ⮬ ࠪ  ஢      ⮬ .

   ᪨ ᮡ,    ,-   । ࠭   ᥪ  㣨. ਬ,  ,   ࣠ ।ᯮ  ࠪ   㣨 .  ᫥  ,   㦥 ࠧ ⨯ ᪨ , ࣠ ਬ樨  ஭ ࠡ⮤⥫  客 .    ࠢ  砥 ࠢ ࠭ ᢮ ᪨ 䨫  ⠩, ⠪   ࠢ  ⨭   ࠢ    㫠, ⮡     . ࠢ  砥   ஫.

 ᪠ ଠ  宦  ⨭.  ᫥ ᢮   த⥫ -   ,   .      25%  .  殢 ,     ୮ ਪ ⠢  祫  ,     . <᫨   -  ᥡ,    -   த⥫    த⢥,-     [Dr. Lisa Geller],    樭᪨ ᫥ﬨ  室  ᯮ  ⮭  Fish & Richardson  ᠬ ⥫⢠   ⥫㠫쭮 ᮡ⢥.-   ଠ    ࠢ  ?>[165]




 ⭮

 ⨭⮭[p45] - 㦠᭮ த饥 , 뢠饥 ந , [p46]   筮  ਢ饥  ᬥ.     䥪⨢ 祭. 뢠    ந室  ய  ࠭  ਪ ᫥  樨.  ⫨稥  設⢠ 㣨 ᪨ , , 뢠騩  ⨭⮭,  : ॡ  ⭮ 50% ᫥    쭮 த⥫.  ࠧ⨥  ⠪ ᨫ쭮 ⫨砥:     30 , 㣨 -  50.   㬨  祭 10  ᫥  ᨬ⮬, 㣨  20 .   , ⥫ , 㬨  १ ⭮   㣨    ⮣,   ᨬ⮬.

 ⨭⮭  ᮡ   ⮯ ᪨ :  1983  㯯 ᫥⥫  ⮭ ࠧࠡ⠫ ,   ,   祫  ᪨ 䥪 ,  ᫥⢨, ஦    .

 1995  Journal of Genetic Counseling 㡫 稢饥 쬮, 뢠饥 砩  殢묨 栬.[166]  ᥬ 殢 뫨 砨   ⨭⮭. ஡,  ⠫ । ࠬ 쬠, 砫  ⮬,    殢   ஢. 㣮   ,    ⥫ .     ,   ᪨ ⮤.

  ਢ ⢮  <>  <⨢> ᪮ ஢  ।ᯮ   .   ஭, ᫨   ⥫ ᬥ⮭᭮ ,    ࠢ쭮 ᯫ஢ ᢮ .  , ਬ, 㯨   ⭨.   ᢮   㢫祭  롮 ᪮,  ᮪稢 ࠡ. ᫨    ⥩ -    뭮  ᫥ த  ६ ६  ࢠ , ᫨   ⥫ ᬥ⥫쭮 樨.

 㣮 ஭,   ।  ,    ⥫ﬨ ᬥ⥫쭮  稬 ᪮ 䥪.        ⢨ , 祬      ᮬ, ᪮쪮 殮 㤥   㯨   .   ஧ ᪮ ਬ樨:  ᫨  ⪠  ࠡ  客  ⮬,       㬥?  ᫥  ॣ஢ ⭨ 砥 ᪮ ਬ樨.[167] ᫨   ⥫ । ,    , ⮡  ଠ    樭᪨ 䠩. ⥩訩 ᯮᮡ  ⮣ -  ஢ .

 ஢   殢 殢,  ஢ -䠪 㣮.     ।  ଠ  ᢮ , 饣  㣮  ࠭, ᫥⥫ ⭥᫨  ⮬ ஭᪨:  ⠪ ଠ      ?  㣮 ஭,  窨 ७ 樭᪮ ⨪,    ஢ 祫   ᮣ, ⠪  ⪠뢠   ⮬,   ⮬ .   ⠫ । ᫥⥫ﬨ, ᪮     ᪠ ᫥⥫쭮 ਭ  ࠧ .

 ,  ࠧ訫 . ன  ᮣᨫ      筮  ஢.  뫨 ६ நନ஢  १     -   ⮭, 㣮 -  -࠭᪮. ᫥⥫  竨 ᮢ ࠧ  ६   த.




  ⮫ 


७訩 ࠪ   [John Moore] ⮫  ஡ 㣮 த.[168]  1976   ७   㤠 ᥫ, 믮 ஬  㫤 [David W. Golde]  ୨᪮ 㭨  樭᪮ 業 -.  ࠤ 쥧  - ᨭ⮪筮  [ <hairy cell> leukemia];  ᥫ 㢥稫    220   6.  뫠 㤠 ࣨ᪨ ⥬,   㬠,   ⮬  稫,   ᥭ 1983     㫤.

। 樥  ᨫ  ,  ஬   ࠧ襭 ᯮ짮 㤠 ⪠  樭᪨ ᫥.  ⭮, ᮣ襭 ࠧ㬥 । 㭨  ࠢ  <  >, ᮧ  ⮪ 宫,   ᮡࠫ 㤠. ॥ ᥣ, ᭨ 㫤,  1983    ⥫쭮 <ࠢ쭮   ᮣ襭>,  ᫮ < ࠧ>  <ࠧ>.  אַ ⨫ 㭨 ᯮ짮  ⪨  樭᪨ ᫥.

筠  - 饭   ᫮ 㯯 ⮪, 筮 ந室  筮 ࠪ ⪨  த    . 祭 뢠  ⪨ ᬥ묨.  孮᪨ ᫥  ࠧࠡ⪨    ᯮ ⭨  .  ஭  祭       ,   砫쭮 뫠  ࠪ ⪠.  ᠬ ,   ᮡ ࠭  ᮢ६ 樭     騭     [Helen Lake], 㬥襩  ࠪ  1940- .
   ,   㫤 ᯮ짮 ⪨   宫  ᮧ <筮  >.[p47]  筠  뫠 ந⥫쭮, ᪮  ⫨稥  㣨    த  ⨡ਠ  ⨢ࠪ ⥨,  GM-CSF.[169] UCLA[p48] 訫 ⥭⮢    1983 ,   㦨,  , ,   । ࠢ  ᯮ짮 ᢮ ⮪  ⮩ 楫.

 ⮣ ⮡  ᮣ襭,  ஬  ᨫ,   .   1984  ⥭  뤠,    ⨢ ୨᪮ 㭨,  㫤,  ⥭ ૨ 㠭 [Shirley Quan]   ௮権,  砫 ⢥ ਡ  ⮪  宫.  룫拉 祢.   殢   ⪠ UCLA  ࠢ ᯮ짮 ᢮ 筮   ᪨ 楫.    㣮 .
< ,  ࢮ ⠭樨 訫,     ࠢ  >,-   ᢮  <⠭ > [Standard of Care] द  [George J. Annas]. 樮   襭, ,  箬  뫮 ᮢ襭 襭  ଥ ᢮ ࠢ.[p49]  뫮   ᠬ , ஥ 堬  뤢 ⨢ US News & World Report.    1990  客  ୨ ᭮  襭, ,    ⮢ ᮧ  ࠢ ᮡ⢥  祫᪨ ⪨   孮᪮ ਨ 㤥 ᥭ ᯮ 䨭ᮢ , ᫨ 믫稢  ,  .  ,  , 客  ୨ ⠫   <⢥稪: ᫥⥫, , 㭨   ,   ⤥ ,   祫᪨ ⪠>.

砩  㭨  ⥬,    ⪠ ᮤঠ 㤮⢥ ⥨,  ⥬,     . 讥 ᫮  室 ⤥   楫 ᥬ  । ᪨ ᮡﬨ, 뤥﫮 ᮮ⢥騩   ᯮ짮   ᮧ ਡ த⮢ - 樭᪨ ⮢  ⮢.   ⭮   ,  祫  ᥬ,    ᮧ ९, ⢮   饩 ਡ뫨.

 । 1990- ᫥⥫ ३⮭᪮ 㭨  ᪥ 㦨 祫  筮 ᪮ ᮡ:   뫨  ᨢ묨, 祬   .  뫠 㦥 砩,  㪢쭮 ᫥ ⮣ ᫮.  祫 ந襫  砩 -    ⮬ ,  ன  㣮 祫 稫  ५ ,  ⮣  ந諮.  ᪮ன  訫 ᭨, 祬 ५  ந諮  㦨  ᮡ   <襭  ⥩> [High Bone Mass, HBM].

᫥⥫  ३⮭ ஢ ࠡ  㦨,   ᮡ  ᥩ ᥬ.  ᥬ ᨫ ਭ ⨥  ᫥, ஥ 砫      ᤠ  ஢, ⮡  ஢ . ⥬,  ५ 1997  ३⮭᪨ 㭨   祭 ⭥᪮ ᮣ襭  Genome Therapeutics Corporation  뤥 ⢥⢥  ᮡ . Genome ⥫ ࠧࠡ ⢮, ⢨ ண 뫮   ⮬ .  ᮧ,  ⢮   ᯮ짮  祭 ⥮஧ - , ன   ࠤ   騭  65 .

<᫨  ᬮ ஢   ஢ 稭 ,  ⠪ ᮧ ⢮    ,  [ਡ  த] ⢠   쬠 ⢥>,- ᪠   1997  䨭ᮢ ४ Genome Therapeutics   [Finel Eloi].[170]  ⪠ ᮮ , ᪮쪮 訬   뭮   ⢠  ⥮஧.  ⮣  ᫠   , 㡫  Business Week 1 ᥭ 1997 .   ᪠,   ⥮஧ ࠤ  騭, 祬  ࠪ 㤨, ࠪ ⪨  筨  ,    1995   祭     祭 14 म ஢.

᫨ Genome Therapeutics     ⮬, ३⮭᪨ 㭨   ਡ뫨  ᮧ 孮.  ᥬ,  ஬  ,   祣. <  室 ⠪ ,    㣨 ⭨  ᫥,-   - [Lori Elliot-Bartle], -ᥪ 㭨.- 饯ਭ,  ⭨ ᫥   ६  稭 㤮⢠  裡  ⨥  ᫥. 筮   祭 訥 죨>.[171]

,          㭨  ଠ. <     ⢠>,-   . 祭  ࠬ  ᥬ,     樠쭮  䨭ᮢ 業.  ⮣, ᠬ  ᥡ    易⥫쭮 室  ந⢠  㤮⢥  -    ᤥ ᢮   த Genome Therapeutics,  ࠧ .

 㣮 ஭, , 騥 ⥫ﬨ  , ਭ  ᥡ  殮 . ⢮  ய ।⠢ ࠢ  ⥬,  த  ⮧ 䨡஧ (㪮樤),  ⨭⮭  䥭⮭ਥ.   塞 ௫   쭮 쪨 ⮬, ⮡ ᪮஢   ᫥⢥. 㦥 ⮣,  塞 客  ⪠뢠 ⨬   客 ⨨  裡  <࠭ ⢮訬 ﭨ>. ,      ࠢ ⢮  ਡ뫨,      ᪫⥫쭮 㤠竨묨 ⨪,  ᮣ  客 㤮 ୨:    ,  ⤥  - .

< , 祬    ᢮ >,-   ᮭ [Mark Hanson], 㤭 ᯮ   - 筮-᫥⥫᪮ 業 Hastings Center, ᯥ樠饣   ⨪.  ᮭ  ⠥,     ᪮ ࠢ ᮡ⢥;  ⠥,   ஡ ନ஢ ᮣ. ᫨ 祫 ᢥ  ஬ 䨭ᮢ ਡ뫨  ᮧ⥫쭮 ⪠뢠  ࠢ,   ४᭮, ⠥ ᮭ.[172]

樥⠬  ।⠢ 롮.   । ࠧ   ᪮쪮  ஢  ⮬ ⮣,  設⢮ ᯮ짮  ᫥ ਠ  ਢ  ᮧ , ⮨  ஢.  樥   ਠ  祭 । 業  ਡ뫨. 樥   ᮣ     , 易   । 業  饩 ਡ뫨  ⢮⥫쭮.  㤭 ।⠢,  - ᪠: <  ᪠ , , ᯮ    祭 भ ਡ뫥   ᯮ  ⮬, ⮡   .        樨.  䨭ᮢ 稥 -  ࠤ >.

 砥  ஬ 孮᪠  ,  ⠪ ஡ ᫥   ᥩ   ६  祭  壠஢ .  䠪᪨  ந⢠     । ॡ  ᫮ ⥬ ᫥. 孮᪨       ஢  ᫨     .  筮 ,      祫    १.    孨᪮ ,  ᮡ ⮣ ⨯ ࠢ 室 ࣠樮 楤.




᪠ ⪠  


ᬮ७  ⮩  樭᪨ ஡ ᫮ ⥬,      ,   ࠧ  ⪠ ஢ 樭᪨ ᫥. ᭮ 饬 ᪮ , ᫥, ஢   ⥫,   襭 ࠢ 樥, ᫨  ࠧ   樥. ⠥,  㤠  祫  ࠧ  ࠧ <>.

 쭨, ਬ, ﭭ   ஢    ⢨ 饭 ९⮢.    ।⠢  業  ஫   [Centers for Disease Control, CDC]  ᯮ짮  ᪨ . < CDC  ⫠   砫 ᫥, ஥ 㤥 ஢  祭  ।  த  द ⥩  楫 業 ⥯ ।  ਥ   ᫥ ⠤ ६. ᫥ 㤥   㤥 ந  ࠧ ஢,    ࠬ 易⥫쭮 ணࠬ    ᫥⢥ ⠡᪨  (ਬ,   䥭⮭)>,- ᮮ頥  , 㡫  1993   Southern Medical Journal.[173]

 ᥣ  <>  ᯮ  ७ ᫥,   ਨ த ࠧ ஭ 祭  ௮.      㤠 .   ,   ⮭,  ࠡ⠫  , ࠧࠡ뢠 ७   ᯫ.  ᫥ ଠ 稫 ᪮쪮  ஡ப  뢮⪮ 祫᪮ ஢. ஡ન 뫨 祭  ਨ, ᯮ饩 ᠬ ᮢ६   ᯫ,   ஡ 뫠 ᥭ ଠ  業樨  ᪨ ମ.   ᭨,  ஡ન 뫠 ᥭ  㣠 ଠ:  騭,  ன   .  ,   稫 ଠ   ᪮쪨  騭 ⮭,  ६! <।,    㤠  ஡ப,   뫨  ᤥ,- ᪠뢠  .- ।   ⨫ , ਭ饥  ⭮ 騭.  㪮⥫  ⥫  ,  ன  稫 ࠧ - 吝,     த    饬>. ६  䨤樠쭮  騭,   﫠 ⮫  થ  ᨫ   ஡ઠ.   쪨     䨤樠쭮.

   ࠧ 筮 , ᮡ ᫨    ᪨ ᫥. <  㤠 , ,  樠쭮 客,     㤠 室  ᫥ ଠ ⨯ ᥬ 痢,  ਮ⥭   㯫 ᬥ.  ⢥  ந⢥ ᫥>,-  ⮫⮬  ⠩ [Lincoln Stein], ࠡ騩  ஥ < 祫>   奤  ਤ,  . 祭  , 㬥     65 ,   뫠    91 ,  ⠩.    ஢ ⥬ ᮯ⠢ <> 樭᪨   㣮, ᢮ 㯭 ଠ樥.  室 뢠 ਠ樥.[174]




३᪨ 


  ᫨  襭 ਢ⭮ ⤥쭮 祫,  ࠤ ਢ⭮ 㯯 .  ᫥  㦥 讥 ᫮ ᪨ ,  । ⭨᪨ 㯯 - ᮡ  ய᪮ ந宦, ⠪ 뢠 -誥.  ᫥⥫   ᪠,     祫 ⥫  , ᫥  ᠥ ⥭   ⭨ 㯯. ᬮਬ  樭᪨ ᫥.

 㤨.  1995  㯯 祭  樮쭮 ࠪ  [National Cancer Institute] 㦨 ࠭ । ॥-誥 ᯥ筮   । .      ⢥ত ࠭ ॥. ,  BRCA1  騭 ⢥ 蠫  ࠧ ࠪ 㤨.

᫥⥫ 稫 858  ࠧ殢 ஢,   ॥-誥,  㦨 ᪨ 䥪   185delAG  쬨  ,   1%. ᭮  㣮 ᫥, 185delAG 㢥稢 蠭  ࠪ 㤨  騭  5 ࠧ,  4  25 (16%)  ਡ⥫쭮 4  5 (70-87%).[175] <    BRCA1     ࠧ , 祬    BRCA1    ⠫쭮 ᥫ>,- ᪠   Baltimore Jewish Times  ७ த [Dr. Lawrence . Brody].[176]

 த ࠧ  筨,   ⮣  ᫥,  २-誥   ࠪ 㤨, 祬 ⠫쭮 ᥫ.   殢,  BRCA1  ⢨   让 業 ३᪨ 騭.  ᬮ  ,  ࠧ뢭 易  ३᪨ 騭   ᮮ⢮.

᭮뢠   १,  ஢ ᫥,  室 ண 5  ॥-誥  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, 뫨 ਢ祭  ᤠ ஢  ।⠢ ஡ ਨ . 㡫 15  1997   New England Journal of Medicine  ᭨ 業 ண ᯮᮡ 185delAG,  -०  뢮,  ३᪨ 騭  ஢訬 BRCA1  BRCA2   ⭮ 56%   ࠪ 㤨  -  ᢮ . <  ,  䠪    ࠪ,-     [Dr. Jeffery P. Struewing], 訩 ᫥.-    蠭 㣨   䠪 㦠饩 ।>.[177]

 筨.   1997   ᪮ 業   [Johns Hopkins Oncology Center]  ⨬ ,   㦥 㣮 ᪨ 䥪, 騩  -誥.   ࠧ 䥪  ⭮襭  ࠪ 筨,    ࠭  ࠪ   ਪ楢. ⭮  ࠪ 筨 । ᥫ  ⠢ 9-15%.    䥪⮬   ⭮  . 祭  業  㦨,  ਡ⥫쭮 6% ॥-誥  ⥫ﬨ 䥪⭮ , 饣 18-30% ⭮  ࠪ. (筮  䠪: 祭  ⠫ ⠭ 砥 䥪  楫  ᥫ.)

७  ࠧ 筮.   ᮡࠫ ਠ  ⮩ ,  ⪭  New York Times  , ਧ뢠襥 ஢楢 ਭ ⨥    ᫥   䥪⮢  ॥ (. ⥪  ࠬ).  ᥭ 1998  ᫥⥫ 㡫  ୠ Nature Genetics , ᪠뢠  ⮬,   㦥   ஬ᮬ, , 宦,  ⢥⢥묨  ।ᯮ  訧७.[178]
⨥    ᫥ 뫮  -  뫨 㤠  ࠧ殢 ஢ । .  ஬  쥬 ᫥  ஢ ࠫ ᯥ樠쭮  ᫥⥫᪨ 楫. ( ࢮ 砥 祭   ⨫ 祭 ࠧ襭 -   稫 ࠧ ஢, ⠢訥 ᫥ ஢ 筮    -.[p50])




 ॥-誥   祭   த 訧७  ࠧ 筮


᫥ 㤥 ஢ 䠪⮬ 娠ਨ  ᪮-᪨ ணࠬ 㭨  . ᫥⥫  ᥬ     쬨, ஢묨 ⨬ ﬨ,      த⥫,  ᥬ   த⥫ﬨ   ஢ ॡ.

   뫨 㤠  ࠧ殢, ᫥⢥ ଠ ⠫. ஢   ࠧ ஢  ᫥⢥ ଠ樥, 祭 䠪᪨ ஢ ᪮ ஢ ᥣ ᮮ⢠.

⮡    ,   ᤥ     ⨢ ᮣ  ஢ ᫥ । 5  祫 䥤ࠫ쭮 㣠 㬡.

 ᮧ ࣪,-  .-   室 讥 ⢮ ࠢ.   童 , ࠢ   [Avis Miller]  騭 < >, 設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, ᯥ樠쭮 ᨫ  ᮬ 祭 ᮣ ᮮ⢠.

 ,  ⮦ ⭮  -誥. ⮬,   蠫,  ࠢ   ᮣᨥ    ,     ᨫ,   ᭮. <  ࠧ襭,- ᪠  ࠢ .-  㬠,    㬥⮢,  类 砥,   ,      蠫,   ॢ訢 ,   ਭ ᮮ>.

 த:
⭮ ,   蠫 ᥭ ⭮⥫쭮  ᥬ⨧,    맢 ⨬ ᫥.  蠫 ᥭ,  ᯮᮡ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨   । ⤥ .   蠫 ⮡ [ ਫ]  ⮬,   ᯮ짮   ᪮ ⥪.  蠫  ⮬,  -ਪ  ⥫ﬨ ௮ ⮪[p51] [ ࣫ ਬ樨  १],  २  ,  㤥 稭 ९ 㪥   ᮮࠦ,-  ࠩ ,  ⭮  ⥬ ,  묨  ⠪. ,  襩 ஭ 뫮 쭮    । 楢 ண,  ᥬ⨧  ⮩ ࠭,  ࠩ , ᮣ᭮  ᫥, ᭨. ,  1930-  1920-  뫮   ᯮ  ⮬.[179]

, ⭮,  뫮 .  1940-    ଠ 﫨,  २  襩 ᪮   ⮬   㭨⮦.  ⫥    ய   ଠ   BRCA1  ⪥ ஬ᮬ, ⢥⢥  訧७,  뫮    ࠧ  㡥 ய   ଠ᪮  <⥫쭮 襭 ३᪮ ஡>.

஥  ᫥ ࠧࠧ  祫 [Human Genome Diversity Project]  ⠫  ஡ ᮣ ⢥,   द .  ஥ - ᮡ ९१⨢ ᪨ ਠ   ⭨᪨ 㯯   . । 祭묨 ⠫ :   ࠧ襭? < ⥫    楢  ,- ᪠뢠 .-    ᮢ , ⮬ [祭] ⨫  ࠧ襭   ᮢ.    㯯  ⠪ ࣠.    ᮣᨥ   ॥-誥?>

⭮, -  樮쭮 ࠪ   ᤥ,  ਫ, ਢ祭  ᫥ BRCA1  BRCA2 祭 訫,  ।⠢⥫ ३᪮ ᮮ⢠ 設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡,     筮 ᮣᨥ   ᥣ ஢ ᮮ⢠ ॥-誥. ,  뫮    ।⠢⥫ ⢥. ,  祭  稭  뢠 ᫨誮  : 祬    祭, ⥬  蠭,  - 㤥 ⮢ ⨢ ᫥.  : <祭 [ਢ祭  ஥] ⢨⥫쭮    ⨬ ᮬ, ᪮  祭 ᫮>.




஢ ᫠


  ᪨ த ᮮ, ।⢥ ⮫襥  ᠬ   ࠢ ᪮ ଠ樥,-  ᫠.

᫠ 뤥 ᢮ ᪨   ᫥⢥. ᥫ騩 ᫠ த, ᫥ ண ⠢ 270  祫,  ᢮ ந宦 ᥣ  20  <᭮⥫>. ,    ᫥     뢠 ﭨ ,  祭 ஡ 樭᪨   ६ ࢮ ஢   ࠭ ࠧ ⪠   稭  ன ஢ .  ଠ,  窨 ७ ⥮ਨ,   ⨪ ⭮⥫쭮  ஢  த  , , .[180]

 1996   樭᪮ 䠪  ࢠथ   䠭ᮭ [Dr. Kari Stefansson] 訫 ᮧ ᪮ ।⨥  ᡮ ᪮ ᫥  ᥡ  த.  ਢ 12  ஢  ਪ᪨    ࣠  deCODE Genetics, Inc.    室 ந⢮ ᪨ ᫥  ᫠ ᮢ⭮  ࠢ⥫⢮  ᥫ.

 䠭ᮭ ,   ࠢ 権,  室 ᪫ 業   ଠ ࠭.  ⢥ 뫮 頭,  deCODE த ᢮ 樨 ⥫ ᫠.  饭 deCODE 뫮  ⮫쪮  䨭ᮢ:  ⢥ত,  ᫠ 室  㭨쭮   ࠢ  ⠫ 祫⢮     ⮩ 稭 易 ᯮ짮 ᢮ ᪨ .   1998  ૠ ᫠  । , 訩 deCODE ᪮ 業;      Gallup Poll ,  90% ᥫ ন ⠪ 襭.

  1998  ૠ ਭ , 騩 deCODE ᪫ 12- 業  ᮧ 饨᫠᪮  ࠢ࠭ [Iceland's Health Sector Database, HSD].  ⮬ ਭ⮣ ૠ⮬  ⠫ ⨥ <। ᮣᨥ>. ᫨ ⮫쪮 祫   ᯥ樠    ᫠     ࣠ ࠭,  ᪠ ଠ ⮬᪨  뫠    .   1999  ⮫쪮 9  祫  270  ᥫ ࠭ ᪫稫 ᥡ  ᯨ᪮.

  ,  HSD, ।᪠뢠  筮-䠭᪮ , 祣  ࠭   ।ਭ. 㤨⥫쭮,   맢 ⨢. MANNVERND, 樠 ᫠楢  ⨪  㪥  樭 [Association of Icelanders for Ethics in Science and Medicine], ࠧ㫠  ⨢ ⮩  :

HSD ॢ  ᥩ 樭᪮ ଠ樥  ᥬ ᥫ ᫠.   ⥪騥 ,  ଠ  ଠ,  , 30-⭥ .   ᪮஢ 樭᪨   ୮ ᪮  ,  ⠪   㠫 ⨯ . MANNVERND ⠥,    蠥 ࠢ 祫, ਪ᭮ 筮   饯ਭ 樭᪨,    ⠭.  ⠥,     饬஢ 祭,  ⬥ ⮣    ਮ⭮ 祩 ஢ ᮮ⢠ 殢  ࠢ 祫. ࠢ⥫⢮ ᫠  ᠬ ⪮ ଥ   ।०  室 ᬮ ⮣ ⥫쭮    ⬥ ⠭.[181]

᪠ ⢥  ᥬ  ⮢ ⨢ ⮣ ஥.   쬮 ࠢ⥫ ᫠, ࠢ ஬ ࠢ ᪮ 㭨 ஬  ਫ [Dr. Henry T. Greely], ⨪  ஢ ,  ஬ ⨪  樭  設⮭᪮ 㭨 ஬    [Dr. Mary Claire King].[182]  ᢮ 쬥 ਫ   ⨪ ஥  ᫥騬 ६ 㭪⠬:

襭.   祭 ࠧ襭   ਫ ,  த ᫠     ࠧ襭  ஥, ᪮  ,  㤥 ᯮ짮 ଠ.

    ⪠     筮,   ॡ  ନ஢  ⮬,   ᫥  ஢   묨. , ਬ, 祫,    ਭ ⨥    ᫥  ᪮ ।ᯮ  ,  易⥫쭮 㤥 ,      ᯮ짮  ⮩ 楫.

䨤樠쭮. 䨤樠쭮 -   ஡ ஥⮢,  ᬠਢ,  祭.     㤥 ᮤঠ , ଠ      ᯮ짮  <᫥> ,   祭 ᪨ ਠ.

   ,   ⭮⥫쭮 讣 ⢠  ਧ, <> ᪨    ᢥ  讬   । 265- ᥫ.  ᫠ ⠪ 業 樭᪠ ଠ,  , ,  ஦  ᫮ த⢥,   ᫠, ࠡ饬  ⨬ 묨, 祭 筮 ஢ 祫.  ஡ ࠧ訬.  ᢥ 筮  樭᪮ 業 ⮩     ਭ ᭮ 襭  ⨨  ஥,       ⢠  㢥७,   䨤樠쭮   ॠ쭮 ᯥ祭.

ᮢ 룮. ஡ 䨭ᮢ ࠦ ࠧ ஥  ᠬ 砫.  ᢮ web-ᠩ deCODE 墠⠥,  70% ⠫  室  㪠 ᫠楢.   ⠫ 室  㪠 ᫠᪨ ,   ᥫ ࠭.   頫 ᯥ ᫠ ᯫ⭮ 樭᪮ 㦨     짮 ଠ樥, ਫ   ᮬ,     祬- 訬,  < ࠪ>  室 ஥.

 ⢥    稬 룮  ᫠ 뫮 頭   ࠡ稥 , 易   ,  <   ᯮ஢>.  ஭ ⥢    ᠬ      ୮ ;  䨧᪮ ⢨  ᫠  ࠥ ஫. ᫥   ⠪       ந 祭묨,  ᨤ  ࠬ  ᥬ .  㤭 ,  ⥫쭠  ᫥⥫᪨ ᮢ   ଠ楢⨪   ६  ᫠,    .   ,    ᯥ ᮪稢 ࠡ 讬  ᫠楢, ᪮॥  ⪠, 祬 ॠ쭮.

筠 . , ਫ   ࣠ ⨪   ஥. ᪮ ᯮ짮   ஫ ⭮ , 饩 樭᪨ ᫥ﬨ,    ஢  ७⠬.

 㢥稢 䨭ᮢ 業    業,   ᭨  業 ଠ樨,    ᯮ짮  䥪⨢, ᫨     ᢮.  魮,  砥,  ஫   ᯮ짮  , ⠪     室  , 室   㪠 த ᫠,  㪠 ௮樨, 饩  祭 ਡ뫨.   祭, ᪮쪮 㦨   ਮ᪨ ஥ ⥯譥 㪮⢮ ⮩ ௮樨, 襭  । 稩  ஫   ਭ ᫠ 祭 襭.

᫨   ᪨ ᫥ ⭨᪨ 㯯,  쪠 ࠢ 砥  ⮬,  १ - ⥫  ⥫  ࠢ  - ᭥ ,    ᮣ  ஢ ᫥. ᪮   ,   ਭ ⥫⢮, ஥ ⨫     ᪮ ਬ樨  ⮣,   ᫥  ஢  ஢.




   ᢮ ?


  㯠 ୠ  㯥ଠથ, ,   ॠ쭮 㯠,  室   㪠 㬠, ୨, ⠢騥 ⭠   ,  業    ᮤন ୠ  ⭮ ଥ.  ᫮  ࠦ  த.  ⥧ ࠢ  ⮣   㯠 -,  ணࠬ    蠥 ࠤ.   ⫥,   㯠 ᮤন,  ᠬ    ⠪:  㯠 業.  ⮣,     ਠ - .

  ⥫: ᮢ६  孮      ⢥  㡫 ਠ.  ⮩ 樨 筮 ॠ樥  ஭ ⥫  뫮   ᭨ 業, 襭 ⢠  ⨬, 騥 祭  騬 ᮡ⢥ 業஢ ,  ᠬ⥫쭮  ⮢  ᪠ ᪮.  祭   ⥫ ᫨  ࠧ.  ⮣ ⥫ ࠧࠡ뢠 孮, 㤭騥 ஢  騥    .   砥,  孮 ⥬᪨  ࠢ ॡ⥫

 祭 ⨫⨩ ࠧ稥  䨧᪨  ⯥⠭   ࠢ  室騬   ᫮ ⠢  設⢠  . ᮪ ⮨ ஢ ⭮ ଠ樨 䥪⨢ 㤥ন   ⮢ ᢮ ᮡ⢥, ਧ  ᮤন .   ᫨ ᪮쪮 祫   ,   ? ᬮ     1950-  ⢮  ᪨  ⮪஢: 㧨 ।  ମ,-           筮 㬠. 砥   ࠭ , 뫨 ࠭묨    룫拉  祭 .

   1959 ,     Haloid Xerox, Inc., ।⠢  뭮 ஢  Xerox 914.   ⥭, ᤥ ஬ ᮭ [Chester Carlson]  1937 ,  914 ⠫ ࢮ ஢쭮 設, ⮬᪨ 饩 ⮪  筮 㬠.[183] 設 ᫠ ॢ樮      ᤥ Haloid Xerox, २訩  1961   Xerox Corporation, ⮬, 騬 ठ ஢.  1963  Xerox ।   ⮫ ஢  - Xerox 813.    Xerox । Xerox Telecopier,  䠪ᨬ ,   । ࠦ   ⥫䮭 .  1973  Xerox 砫 த 梥⭮   6500 - 設, ᯮᮡ  梥   筮 㬠  ஧筮 .

   ஢ ⮢ Xerox    ᯮ짮   ਣ   楫.      뫠 , ਬ ⮪ ⭮   뫠 ⮩.    1968   Xerox 3600 ( ஢ , ந訩 60     筮 㬠),   1970- -  Xerox 4000 (ࢠ , ᯮᮡ  ஭ ), ⥫ ⠫ ᮢ襭 ᭮,  ஢쭠 孨 ⠭  ⠭, 騬 ᠬ⥫쭮 २ ਠ, 饭 ᪨ ࠢ.

⮪஢쭮 㤮  ⢥ 孮,  ࠢ  ⥫㠫 ᮡ⢥. 訥  1960-  㤨  ॡ⥫ ᠬ⥫쭮 뢠    - ஢ ᥩ  ।⢥ 뢠 ࠤ࠭. 䮭, 訥  砫 1970-, 뫨  ⢠ 䨫. 譨  ᮧ ਭ樯쭮  ⥣ 쭮 㥬 ଠ樨: ୮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭.   ⫨稥  ஢쭮 孨, 㤨-  䮭,  ᮧ ਭ樯쭮  ஧ ᪮ ࠢ: ᪮ ஢ ଠ   ᪮஢  ,       ணࠬ , 筮,  ଠ樨,    ஢.

 1976   ᬮ५ 樮쭮 ⥫⢮  ᪮ ࠢ.  ७ ⥫ 室 ਡ ᪮ ࠢ  ᮢ६ ॠ,  孮  ⠢ 襢,  ⢥  ਣ ந. ᭮ ஬ ⥫,    אַ   ᪮ ࠢ  ந,   室  㡫 ;   ⠭,    㣮, 䨪஢   ਠ쭮 ଥ, ⮬᪨ 頥 ᪨ ࠢ.  ⠪ ਫ ᯥ樠 ᪫祭 -  ⥪   砥 <ࠢ ᯮ짮> [fair use].  , ࠢ ᯮ짮 砥,    ⮢  짮⥫  業  ⮢ ࠭祭 ᫠  饭 ᪨ ࠢ ਠ  室 ।⥫쭮 祭 ࠧ襭  ᪨ ࠢ. (ਬ, ਭ樯 ࠢ ᯮ짮   ਢ   ୠ ⥩  ⮩   ।⥫쭮 祭 쬥 ࠧ襭.)

 饭  祭 ࠧ襭  ९,  1978   ᭮ ਭ   ᪨ ࠢ [Copyright Clearing House]. ਭ   業ࠫ ᪮ ࣠樥, ਭ饩 ⥦   짮⥫ -  ஭   饩   室 ঠ⥫ ᪨ ࠢ.

   ᪨ ࠢ ।ᬠਢ ⪨   襭 ᪨ ࠢ.     ᤥ   :    襭 ᪨ ࠢ  㣮 㯫,  ஥ ஧   ⭨  ஢  ⪨  ६ 祭.

 ⥫  ⠫     ,  訫 ᤥ ਧ ஢ .  1970-   ⥫ ଠ樮 ⥭ ⠫  ᢮ ᪨  ன 㬠 ᯥ樠묨 <ந묨> ᨭ ୨. ⥫  뢠 ࠧ ⥬ ᪠ ᨣ   ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡   뫮 ᬮ,   ९. ࠡ稪 ணࠬ ᯥ祭  ஢ ᯥਬ஢  ࠧ묨 ଠ   ஢ ணࠬ ᯥ祭.   ⥬   ஢ ࠡ⠫,    ன ⥯:      ᬮ ⠭ ⢮ ᫮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭;    蠫 ࠡ  짮⥫.
梥 ᥬ୮ ⨭   ᫮ ஡  ஢.  ୥  祣 , 祬 ᪮஢   ⮣  ᫠  -  ஭ . 饭 ᪨ ࠢ  ﭭ 뫠  ஭ ᯨ᪨ 뫪,    ⥫.  ᥣ  ந室  祭 ࠧ襭   㢥 ঠ⥫ ᪨ ࠢ.  ६  訬 ⢮  襭  ୥ ਮ५ ஢ ࠧ ࣮ ᪨ ணࠬ ᯥ祭, ⠪ 뢠 <१>.[p52]   ᠬ  ஢,    १砩 묨  ᯮ짮  ⨬ 楫 - ᮪᪮⭮ , ᪮ 㦡  ஢,-  묨  ⠬.

᭮  ஢  1996  Business Software Alliance  Software Publisher Association ᫥, < 523   ᪨ ணࠬ ਫ, ᯮ짮  1996 , 225  -     - 뫨 ᪨: 室 ਨ ணࠬ ᯥ祭  ⢠  1996  業  11,2 ठ ஢>.

 ⠫ ⭮,    ஢  ࠡ⠥, ⥫ 訫 ⢮    ⢮  孮 -  ન஢    .   ᥡ ન஢   । ⢮,    ⥭樠  ⠭ , 祭   , ,  ࠩ , , ᫨誮 ஦  饭  ᢮ ࠬ.




⨥ ଠ樨


쬨 ⮪ ண ࡮ 㬠, ᬮ   ᢥ   ᬮ 㢨   - 㧮, 砥 ⥬ ਦ  㬠   誨 䨣୮ 樨.   뫨 ⥭  ⠫  XIII . ⠫᪨ ந⥫ 㬠 ᯮ짮   ᯮᮡ ન஢ ᢮ 㤮   ।⢮ 㦥   .

  த  ஢ . 筮 㬠  , ஢   -   ଠ樨,   筮 ᬮ ꥪ,  ⭠ ⥬,  ,   . 設⢮ ஢   ࠧࠡ⠭  ࠬ ⥬ ࠢ ࠢ  ⥫㠫 ᮡ⢥.  ⥬ ࠧࠡ뢠  楫 ।⠢  ᭮ 㡫 ⮣䨨  㣨  ஢ ଠ樨  ஭ ଥ. ⭮ ⨢ ﭮ   㬥, ⥫   ,  - 祫  ࣠ ᪮஢  ଠ  ᯮ짮   ࠧ襭. 訬  ⥬ ஢  ,      , ..      १ ࠦ  ࠡ⪥    - ஢ 䨫.

 ⢮ ⥬ ஢  .   ⠪ ⥬, ࠧࠡ⠭ ᫥⥫ﬨ  IBM,  뢠 ﭮ  ࠧ஬  ।   ⮨ࠦ ࠧ஬  ୠ ࠭    ᫥.  ६ 樨 祭 ⠫ ᫮ IBM Research  ⮣䨨  ᫥⥫᪮ ਨ IBM (IBM Watson Research Labs). ﭮ    祭  ࠦ,  ᫨  뫮 ,-  ⮬ 砥 ﭮ   㪠   .  ⢥ ⥫쭮  ࠦ ﭮ    ஢ ᯥ樠 箬. ᯮ  ,   ஢ ﭮ    䠪 ࠦ.  ⥭樠   ஢ ࠦ  ।  ﭮ     ⮫쪮 ᨫ쭮,  ﭮ  祧.




஢  


 ࠦ, ।⠢ ஬ ࢮ  [Minerva M. Yeung]  IBM T. J. Watson Research Center,  ⨥ ﭮ   ࠦ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  ⠢   砥 ० ࠦ.  ࢮ   ਣ쭮 ࠦ  頥   ﭮ . ᫥ ७ ﭮ  १饥 ࠦ 䠪᪨ ⫨稬  室.    ࠦ ,  ᥭ 讣   ⮣ 뢠 ०  祭 ﭮ . ⥬ ஢    ப   ᫥ ६饭 ࠦ   ୥, ⠪   . ᪮     ஢, 짮⥫ ࠦ       ⢮. [ࠦ  ।⠢  IBM]

⮨ࠦ  ⢥  ஢ ଠ樨,    祭 묨 . ࠡ⠭  DICE Company ⥬ Argent Digital Watermark System 頥 ஢    㤨-  . ⥬ Argent  뢠  㤨⮪  2100   ᥪ㭤,  ⭮ 70 ࠭栬 ⥪  10-ᥪ㭤 ࠣ. ଠ   ஢, ⮡ ⮫쪮 ⥫ ᭨  ஢ ,  饭  ⮬ , ⮡     . ⥬  ⠪ ᮪ ந⥫쭮: ﭮ    ⠢   ।⢥  ६ ࠭樨  ࠤ  㧪  ୥.

   ᮡ⥩ Argent -  ࠭   ந ᪮쪨    ६. DICE । ࠧ ਠ ᯮ짮  .     ஢, ⮡   high-end ந뢠⥫  ⮡ࠦ ଠ  ࠢ⥫, ,  ஦   ଠ, 易  몠 ந. 㣮    ஢  ᯮ짮  ⢥ 饭  ࠭, .. ᮤঠ ଠ  ᯥ樠 ᫮,   ந⥫ । 몠쭮 ந ࠭⥫.

 㯭 業⮬ ⥬ Argent   Studios  -,  १ DICE  ᪮ [Scott Moskowitz].[184] MCA ᯥਬ  ᯮ짮 ⥬  ଥ ન஢ 모, । ࠭⥫  த 㡫. 孮 Argent   ⠪ ᯮ짮  ᪠   ஢ 모  ୥  ⥪ ⠢騪  . DICE  ⠪ 業஢ 孮  ᠬ ⠢騪  , ⮡   ᯮ짮    ᢮ 娢. ᪮ 孮   ஥   ᪮ ⥬,    ⮬᪨ ᪠஢ ୥  ᪠ 襭 ᪨ ࠢ.

 ⥬ Argent ᯮᮡ  襥, 祬 ⮥ ࠨ ଠ樨  ࠢ⥫. ⨩, ⠪ ஢,  ஢   - 饭   -    ᥡ ଠ   祫, 㯨襣 䮭ࠬ, 㯫祭 㬬, ६   㯪,  ⠪  ᮡ ।⠢  業  ᯮ짮 䮭ࠬ.  ࠧ  ࠡ⠭   Argent 䮭ࠬ, ᮤন  ᥡ ᠭ ஢  祪.  ᯮ짮 ⮣   祫 砥 ᢮ 㭨쭮 ᮭ஢  䮭ࠬ, ਬ 㦥      ᯥ樠쭮 ᠭ    CD. ᮭ஢ ⠪ ࠧ 몠,   ᪮,     ।⢮   ⢮. <᫨   [㯠⥫],  ࠭ ᮤন 筮 ࠭  ।⭮ 窨, , ᪮॥ ᥣ,   ஦>,-  ᪮.  졠  ஧ ⠪ ᯮᮡ   .  ॡ, ⮡ 筮 ,  㯠  砥 䮭ࠬ 㣨 ᯮᮡ, 뫠 ஢ ࠭⥫,   ଠ ᨫ  䮭ࠬ   ।.  ⠪ ࠧ㬥,  ࠭⥫  ࠭  ଠ  䠩, ⮡  㦥 襭 ᪨ ࠢ  뫮 ᫥   ॡ⥫. ⮫  ⠪ ࠪ᪨ ࠬ,  㯠⥫  ⪠  ਮ⥭ 모, ।७ ।⠢  ଠ   - ࠧ  ⥬.




  ⨢ 


    ࠧࠡ뢠  ન஢ 㬥⮢  ࠦ, ࠡ뢠   .    ⥬   饭   筮 짮⥫ ७ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 [trusted software]. ணࠬ ᯥ祭 筮 짮⥫     ணࠬ ᯥ祭   ⥫. ணࠬ ᯥ祭   ⥫ ᯥ稢, ⮡  짮⥫  ᯥ祭 ᢮ ᮡ⢥, 㭨쭮, ᮭ஢  ᭠ 묨  ᨥ 㬥. ணࠬ ᯥ祭    ᬠਢ   짮⥫. ᪮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 ॣ 䠪 ᯮ짮, ⠥ । ⪨ 짮⥫ ᤥ ᠭ樮஢      ।  ଠ ⥫. ᪮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 뢠 <७>, ⮬   짮⥫ 㦤  :




஭ ࠢ ࠢ

DigiBox  InterTrust - ⥬ ࠭ᯮ஢ 饭 ᪨ ࠢ ଠ樨  ᮧ⥫, १ ਡ  筮 ॡ⥫  ᪠  ᫥ .  ⥬ ࠢ ࠢ   <ᨫ쭮> ਯ⮣䨨   ଠ樨  ᯥ樠஢ ணࠬ ᯥ祭, 饬 ଠ  ஢ ᫥ ஢   筮 짮⥫.  ⥬     ᯥ樠쭮 ணࠬ ᯥ祭, 饭  譥 .  ⮩ 稭  1999   ਭ,  १ ⮭ ᠫ Digital Millenium Act.[p53]   㣨 頬, Digital Millenium Act ਬ 祫  㯫 ⪫祭 ணࠬ ᯥ祭   ஢, ࠡ饣   . [㭮  믮 ᮬ   Reilley Design  ࠧ襭 InterTrust]

᪮  ணࠬ ᯥ祭 ࠡ⠥      䥪⨢ ᯮᮡ ஢ન  㭪樮஢. ६  ।  ன  㯠  ᣮ  ⠪ ⥬. ⮫  饣 祭  ࠢ 樮 ⥬ Windows  Macintosh    ९ணࠬ஢  室     ஭ 楢 ᪨ ࠢ.   饬, 筮,    㪮⮢ ᯥ樠 㤮, ஥ ᯥ 믮 ࠭祭 ⥫쭮 ᪨ ࠢ. ᯮ    ଠ InterTrust -   ᪮쪨 , ᮧ ᭮  ⠪ ⥬. InterTrust ࠧࠡ⠫ ஭ த㬠 奬 ⠢ ஢ ଠ樨  짮⥫  ᫥騬 ।।묨 <-ࠢ>.

ਮ⥭ [purchase]. 짮⥫ ⭮    砥 ࠢ  ࠭祭 ᯮ짮.

   ᯮ짮 [pay-per-use]. 짮⥫     ࠧ,   ଠ樥.

蠭  [upfront fee]. ⢫ ࢮ砫 ⥦,   ᫥ ᫥⥫ 訥 ⥦.

 ७   [rent-to-own]. ࠭祭  ।⠢ ᫥ । ⢠ 믫.

 ᯮ짮 [free use].  ⭮  ,  ࠢ ࠧ㬥 ࠭祭   .

⥬ ⮬᪨ ᫥  짮⥫, ᪨   । ⢮ ,    㤠 ଠ  ᪨ ࠢ  ।頥 ⪨   ஭ ᯮ짮 ࠢ,    ।⠢.  ⥬ InterTrust     業⮢  ࠢ ᬮ 㬥 १ ୥, ⥫쭮   業⮢  ࠢ ᯥ 㬥   業  ࠢ ᫠ 㬥 ,  ண,  ᢮ ।, 㤥 ᪠  業⮢  ࠢ  , 祬 ᪮쪮  楢. InterTrust   ,  ௮樨  ᮢ ࠭ 讥 ⢮ ଠ樨  祭  業, ᫨  㢥७,    ᯮ짮 㤥 祭,   㤥 ⮬᪨ 饭.
஢  -    ௨稪,    ⥬ ࠢ ࠢ,  InterTrust. ஢  -  祭   ਯ⮣᪨ ८ࠧ  ଠ樨,    ᮧ  祫 ( ࣠樥)  ஢७ 㣨.  ᯮ짮 ஢  ⠭  ᭠ 㬥 㭨 䨪஬,  ᠢ襣, ଠ樥  ६   ᠭ  㣨 묨.[p54]

 - 祭  孮.   , 몠쭮 ந   ᠭ ஬, ⮬ ⥫,  ⥬  祫, 騬 ।   ஭ .    ६ ஢    ஢७ 祭 . ஭  த ୥   ணࠬ஢ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡  । ଠ,  ࠢ⥫    ᢮ ஢ .  ࠧ    ணࠬ஢ ⠪, ⮡ ਭ ⮫쪮  ࠧ ᠭ ଠ.

   ஢   묨 ।⢠ ᪮७ , 饩 ᥣ ஢ ⥫. ⥫ 饣, 뢠  ᫥  XX ⮫, 㤨,    , -᪮,   ஭ ଠ樨 - ࠭﫨 । ,   ॡ⥫.     ࠦ ⥬,      ࠬ, 䮭  ஢묨 設, ᯮᮡ묨 ந ᪮筮 ᫮ ४᭮ 室  ᯮ짮, ᫨    .   ⠭ ப ࠭ ⢠, ஬ 祫᪮ ᮢ?

筮, 吝    䥪⨢ ᭨ ஢ ⭮, 砩 ⢠, ⮫ ࠭ ᥣ.   ⥬, ᪮॥ ᥣ, ᨫ ⨢ । 㣠 饭 ,    ஢ ଠ樨   ᥭ    . <  諮  [1996]    㡫,  U2 稫 ᢮  졮.  諮  ,   ᨭ  졮 ⠫ ࠭ १ Web  ࠧ襭>,- ᪠뢠 ᪮. ⭥ ᥣ, 窠  ४ ந諠 १ 㤭 㤨.

  ᫨ ⥬   ⠭ ࠭묨 ᥬ⭮, ।   ࠢ  室 ᯮᮡ ᫥ 祭 ᪮,    ᪮஢.   ॡ, ⮡ ᪨ த ⮫쪮 ᫥ । 㤮⮢७ 筮  ⮣䨥   ⯥⪮ 楢.    ᬮ ९⢮  ⮢ ࢠ    窨-⪠,          ࠦ, ⠢   㤠.  筮  ⥬    ⮢  ᯮ짮 ᥭ  ஫  ⢥ । ।饭 襭 ᪨ ࠢ.




   ⥬,  ?


᫨     ६  䨫쬠  -થ,   ᯫ஢  ࠭. ⮬   ⥭    ࠨ   ।  ⠬.  ⮣    ⥫䮭 777-FILM - 筮  砫  -  㯠   ࠭ ᥠ  ⥫䮭. ᭮  1989   MovieFone த ᥣ   11500   30 㯭 த - 60% ⥠஢ ࠭ -  砥  1,5  2,5   쭮.    1999   ࠭ 襫 䨫 < :  I -  ஧>    ⥭᪨ ⥠ 뫨 㯫 ࠭ १ MovieFone.
 饥 ६ MovieFone 砥 室  ४, ப稢  ⥫䮭,  ᨮ  த ⮢.   , ਮ⥭  䥢ࠫ 1999  America Online,[p55] ᪮     筨 室: 뭮 ᪮ ଠ樨,  ண,  䨫  ᯥ묨,  㤠묨  ᪮쪮.
   [p56]  1997   ࠭ 襫 䨫 <ﭭ :  ᪮ ਮ>, த ⮢   ⠢ 59%   த MovieFone ⮢.   ࠧ 䨫 稫 61% 뭪  த   ⮢.    뫮 砩 ᯫ᪮.  24 ﭢ 1997  襫 <  >, த ⮢   १ MovieFone ⠢ 8%,   楫  뭪 - 9%.

   㡫 New York Times ,  堭 ᮪ ஢ ண஢:

<㯭   祭   䨫쬠 National Research Group  -   ᢮ ண 室 䨫쬠  ண   롮મ ⥭樠 ⥫.  ⮤,  ᮮ饭,  譮 -  業⮢>.[185]

㣨 㦡    .

<  ६    ਨ   ⭨  㡡  ,  "" 䨫,    ଠ MovieFone     業 㦥  砫 >,- ᪠ New York Times ⨪ Alex, Brown & Sons   [Drew Marcus]. ,  ந室 ⮬,  MovieFone   業筮 㦡. MovieFone ।⠢ ॠ १ 뭪.
 ᪠ ଠ ।⠢  業  ਨ ப:   ⥠ࠬ  ᪮쪨  ।, ᪮쪮 ࠭   䨫 뤥,    訩 室. MovieFone 砥 ᯮᮡ ᯮ짮  ⮩  ⮭᭮ ଠ樮 .  筮, ଠ MovieFone  . १ Amazon.com[p57]   [Jeff Bezos] ᪠ ,     ண஢, ᪮쪮  㤥 த   ᪮쪮 楢   室  ᭮ ।⥫  ⮢. ⥬ ᪠ ଠ樨  ୥ Infoseek ந ᯨ᮪   室 web-ᠩ⮢ ⥬      ப ᪠ ᫮.  ଠ   ࠡ⠭  த ४ ⢠.[186]

  ଠ  ᠬ  த  ? ଠ ᯮ   MovieFone, ⮬ ,   ᥬ, ਭ ⮩ .  㣮 ஭,  MovieFone,  Amazon.com,  Infoseek  ᬮ  ᮧ  ଠ   ⮢: , 室   .   ⠭ ࠭ ᯮ짮  ﬨ ଠ樨? ᪮  稢  १ MovieFone    । , MovieFone  筮  ,  , 筮,  த  ଠ ࣮栬.    MovieFone - America Online -  ᮢ ।⥭  㣮 ଠ樥  த 祭 ⮪   ଠ樮 뭪.

  㢨  ।饩 ,  㯥ଠથ  ⥪ 㦥 ᯮ ଠ  ᢮  ⠪ ᯮᮡ. 㯥ଠથ,  ࠩ ,  ᢮ ⠬   ࠢ ⥬ ।⠢ ᪨,   । ᢮ 㡭 窨.

ଠ  ࠭  ⠭  ଠ樥  筮 祭 業. ,   饬    ࠧ ⮨,  ᨬ  ⮣,  ⢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ⮢ : ᯫ⭮ - ᫨  ᮣ ᮮ ⥫ ᢮ ,    ⥫䮭;  業⮢ - ᫨  ᮣ  ᢮   ;   - ᫨     , ..   ⥫ ᯮ짮  筮  ᪨ 楫.

筮, ଠ  筮 -    . MovieFone ,  ⥭樠쭮 ਡ쭠 ଠ   祭  ࠭権 ⥬ 稢  ᮫樨.  뫮  ࠧ㬭 㬠,  ⠪ ,  MovieFone, ࠭ த  ᨢ ଠ樨, ᫨ ᮭ쭮 㥬 ଠ  ਭ ⥫ ਡ.




   ᯮ짮 ࠢ    襩 ਢ⭮?


 ࠢ ᮡ⢥  ਢ⭮  㦥  ,   ᯮ짮 ० ⥫㠫쭮 ᮡ⢥   ਢ⭮ ⠪   ਦ. ,    襬,  諮  ⠪. 襭  祢,  ௮⨢ ਪ  ࠤ 㯨  ⠪ 業 ࠢ ॡ⥫. ਪ栬 諮   ७  ࠢ 짮 ᢮ ᮡ⢥묨 .

 蠭  ᠬ ਢ⭮  ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮, -१ Equifax  ᠬ ਢ⭮  譨 ⭮襭,   [John Ford] ᪠,    鸞   ଠ樥.    ᪠:  ଠ ਭ ,  ⮬     ᯮ짮. 㣨  ࠧ,     ଠ,  ଠ  .[187]

 ࠭  ᢮     , ⥫䮭묨 ࠬ  ᠬ ஭   ᥬ,   㧥  㣨 ,  묨  砫.  ᫥   䠩 뫮 1386 .       䠩 -  묨 ⠪⠬.   1579 ᥩ,   ६   䠬ﬨ.    ।⠢ ⨬     㤠 ᥡ   ᭮ ? ॥ ᥣ, .   殢,   ᭠ .





9

६  



⮣  1996 .  800  Trans World Airlines 砫,    㣨,-  প. 﫠 ઠ  ,      ᢮ ।    30 . -747  230 ᠦࠬ     -᪨ ய   .   ⠫    ஫ -. ਡ⥫쭮 १ 30   稫  㦠᭮. 祢    让 ,     ꥪ,  ⥬ ன,   .  㯠      3.  室訥   .

 ࠧ   -᪮   砫 ᫥⢨ ⥬ 祭  ᠬ,    . ࠣ,     뫨 饭  ஬   -,  ᫥⥫ 蠫 殮  ய⫨   ४஢ ઠ ᠬ. १ ᪮쪮   砫     ⥫ ⥫.  ६,  , ⠪   । , 㫨஢ ᠬ ࠧ ᨨ 稭 . ᪮ ⠫ ᭮,   ⮫쪮   ᭥ : ⪠ 㤮,     ࠪ  <->.

楤 ᨫ  ᡮ ⥫ த  祭 ᫥ ᪮쪨 楢. ० 窨 ⠫,    뢪 ⪠ 뫨 饭    ஠஢. ⮨ ᫥ ⠢  筮   100  ஢.  㯨  ⢨. 室  ।,  ३ 800   १ 뢠 ,  ᮢ⭮  ⨪  樠묨 栬  ᨫ ० ᭮  ய.  ୨ ࠦ᪨ ᢮ ࣫ १ ⨪  , ⢥ত,   ப⠡ ⠪   ᨬ  ࠦ᪨ ᢮ ਪ᪨ ࠦ.  祬   뫮 祭  , ⥬ ᫠ 뫨  .

   ᫥  ३ 800 ந襫 ன .   ࠧ 楫 뫨 ࠭ ⭨ ᪨   ⫠:  祫 ,   稫 ࠭.

  ᠤ  ᠬ  ᠦ஢ ⠫ ॡ । 㬥  ⮣䨥,  ᫨ ३  ७. ⥬  﫮  饭樮쭮 ⥬ 䨫஢ ᠦ஢, ⮡ , 뢠騥 ७  ।ᯮ  ᮢ襭 ᪨ ⮢, ন  ᬠਢ  ய. ( १  ᬮ஢ 砬 ਪ楢 ࠡ᪮ ந宦 뫨 ⠢ 㤮⢠,      ন.)

 ६ ਪ᪠ ⮢ 㦡 ⠭ ப⠡ ࠭祭:   쬠 ᮬ    [454] 뭥  뫮   ⮢ 騪 -  ⠪ ࠢ  ᮤঠ !  ⮣ 殮 ⮢ ࠢ  뫨 ᤠ 㦠饬 ⮢ ⤥,  ᯥ稢 㠫 䨪.  ࠭祭 த ⢮   ᥩ .

 ᫥ ⨫⨥ , ਭ - ஧ ७ ਧ, ⠫ 뢠 ⢥ ﭨ   設⢠ ਪ楢.   ⠢ 祭 ⮩ :     ॠ 䥪? ⮡  ,   ᭠砫  㧭  ᠬ ਧ.




⨧ ⨢ 孮


 ਧ .   XIX  XX  ਧ  ।⢮,   ᪨ ६. ਧ  ,   㣭⥭ த.  ⮢ 뫨 । 楫:   ࠡ⢠, ᢥথ । ०, ᪮ ਧ,-   ᯮ짮 ᨫ   ஧  ⨦  楫.

 <ண ⨫>  ⢮  ⠢  㯯;   뫨   ᪨  ᪨ ࣠権.   砥, 設⢮ 童  㯯 뢠   ᤥন饣 ﭨ  ⢨ ⮢.  ᫨   楢 ⥫  㡨     ᢨ⥫,  ⭨  ⠭ , 㡥,  ᫥ ᨫ  ९ 樨,  ,  ᨫ 訬 ⮢.

 1980-  1990-  뫨 室 . ᬮ     뫨 , 㤭騥  㯭묨 ࣠ﬨ   ࠢ⥫⢠,  ᯮ짮    ।⢮ ⨦ ,    .  ३ 103  Pan American  ࡨ  ⫠  1988 , ᪮॥ ᥣ,    न஢ 묨 ⠬ ਯ  砫 1980-. 墠  1980-  ਪ楢     뫨,  ⭮, ⢥⮬  ५    1984-.  ਪ᪠ ⢥ ᬠਢ  ⢨  ᪨,  ࠢ 뫮  ஢    ⢨.

 譥  - 樮 .     ⠢ ᢮ 楫   ⨢.  <ᬠਢ  䨧᪮ 㭨⮦ ⨢  த⨢ १>,-     [Louis Rene Beres],  ⮫ 㭨 ,   ⮪  騩 ⮪ ਧ  ᯮᮡ   .[188]   ⮢  訬 祩, ࠬ   .

      ᮢ  ॣ,  業 ⤠ ᫥⢨ ᢮ ⢨       ࠭ ᢮ ᮡ⢥  - 䠪᪨  ⨢ ६  ᢮ ᬥ. <樮    童 㯯 楢,  ᬠਢ ᮢ ᬥ   १,  ᪮ 窨 ७,-  .-  樮   ᬠਢ ᪨      ᪮ 堭  - 㣨 ᪨ ᮡ⨩>.

<    []  ⮫ - >,- ᪠    樨  設⮭᪮ 㭨 ᭮ 1997 .      -  ⠫   訬 ﬨ ⨠ਪ᪮ .   ⠥,     ᪮ .

,   ⮬ ⠭ । , 祭 ⮩:   । ᪨  ⥬ ⥬᪮ ਭ  ⥭樠 ⮢  祭     ⮣,    㤠?  ᫨ ,   業  ?




 ᬥ


१ ⮢ ⤥ ⠡- B'nai B'rith International, ᯮ  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡,  室 ஬ ⢮ ࠢ.    ⫨砫  ⠫.  ⪠ ࠧ஬ 8x10 뫠 ०,    稫 ࠧ ⠭. ࠢ 뫮 ᮢ  <B'nai B'rith>,-  ,   .

㦠騩 ⮢ ⤥ । ࠢ ଥ ⠭ [Carmen Fontana], ४  ᭮ ३᪮ ࣠樨. ⠭ ᪠ :

 룫拉 筮.  堫 .   室 , 宦  .   100%  㢥७,   .   ⨫    ⥩  뭥 . ,  ᨫ ࠭ 맢 .
ਡ訥 ᠯ 稫 ᮤন   ७⣥.  祣  뫮 , 宦  . <  뫨 ,- ᪠뢠 ⠭.-    誠 [p58]  ᭮ ⠭樥.  誥  뫨 ᥭ - .  ⠫   ஢ ᮤন  ᨡ 梨>.[189]

 ⨬ ᫥ 쬨ᮢ . 設⮭᪠   뫠 ࠩ  20 ⠫  ⠡- B'nai B'rith.   饭  ࠦ ஡  ।    -᪮ ᯨ⠫  ᤥ.  業 த,    ⮢  ᠬ 襬. த᪨ 㫨,   મ 뫨 ,     祬 10 砬 祫  .    﫮  ஡,  ࠧ  ⮫.  ६,   ࠦ, 150 㦠騬 B'nai B'rith 뫮 ᪠   .

 20.30  ᯨ⠫ 稫 ।⥫ . ᭠ ⠭ ᮤঠ - ਨ,    뫨 ᨡ᪮ 梨. 樠 㯮祭  ᠬ ࠢ࠭ 設⮭  ࢨ  [Dr. Harvey Sloane] ,  㦠騥 ३᪮ ࣠樨   .  ந襤襥 뫮 ஧襬.

 樤, ந襤訩  ५ 1997 , ,  ⮫ ᮫⭮  ⮢  ᪮ ⠪. ᬮ      ⮢  樨 १  1996  ஢ ७஢  ࠡ⪥  樤⮢, 14 㤭 ᯠ⥫ 㦡 த  ஦ 稫 ⠪  ⠭樥  ⠪  ࠦ.    ६ ࠭⨭  150 㦠   த㬠, ⠥  ⠭  [Dr. Jonathan . Tucker]   ᫥ ஡ ࠭ [Center for Nonproliferation Studies]. <ࠧ ᪨  ।⠢ ᭮ ⮫쪮  אַ ⠪: ⮣ ⮡  祭 ᪮쪨 ᮢ ঠ 㦠  ࠭⨭  , ࣠  ⥫쭮 ⢨ ᭮ ਠ,  ࠢ 뫮 ॢ   㣮   ঠ  ,   ⠭  १ >.[190]

<⮢  ࠧ ,-  ४  ᭮ ⠭.-       楩᪨   -  ᤥ ,  .   ⮢ 뫠 १砩 , ᫨ 뫠 .    뫮 室 㤮>.

  ⮬ , ,   ᮮ⢥饣 . ᪠뢠 ⠭:

  뫮  ᮡ⢥묨 .    뫮 䥪樮 ⪨, ⮬  ⠢ 冷  㧮  㫨   ᮪ १. ⥬  ⨫   ᮪ ⨪.  ⠫ 䥪樮 襬:⥬  ࠡ⠫ 嫮பᮬ,    ࠡ⪨ ᮡࠫ  ⨪,-   ᫮   㫨  㫨.  ࠧ   㡨 .  ᪠: <,   㤥, ᫨ 嫮ப   㡨 ᨡ 梨?   ࠧ  த>.    墠⠫ ⮢.  ᯮ,  35     㦡  ࠡ뢠 ⢨  砩 ਬ 娬᪮  ᪮ 㦨, ⠬  뫮 祣 宦  ,    ୨.

 ᫥騩  B'nai B'rith ⨫ -५,  ஬ ਫ த      ॠ  ᠬ⢥থ ࠡ,  ⨫,  <쥧 ᯮ 祢 筮 ⮢>: < 樨   ⠪ 梨  ᪨ ⠬ த ⥫쭮   砩襣 ஢ ⮢  ᮮ⢥ ᮢ  ⢨  ⠪ ⥭樠쭮 ᬥ⥫쭮  ,  .  頥  த᪨  䥤ࠫ   졮  ⢨ ஢, ᪮쪮 த ⮢   த 樤⠬>,-  ᯮ⥫ -१ B'nai B'rith   䨫 [Sidney M. Clearfield]  ࠭  ᫥騩  -५.

᫨   ⥫ ᮢ   ⠡- B'nai B'rith,     ᤥ  ࠧ 訬 㬮   ࠧ  ᪨ १⠬.  ⮣ ⮡ 뫠    䠫訢묨 ﬨ,   ᫠  ⠭ 㡮窥   讪, ᮤঠ騩 ᯮ 饩 ᨡ᪮ 梨.  ⢫ ࠧ  孨᪨ ᫮ ⠪,   㧭  ।⠥ B'nai B'rith । ⢥ ⠭  ⮢ ࠢ   ⠢  ᫥饬 ⢮⥫쭮  ࣠樨.




   Vivid


 Vivid Technologies, ⠡- ன ᯮ  ୥,  ,  ந⥫ ᫮ ⥬ ᬮ   筮   ய⮢   . ⥬ 㦨 ⠭   㦨,  ⢠  મ⨪ ⥬ ᢥ稢 ७⣥᪨ 砬  ࠡ⪥ 祭 ࠦ ⥬ ⢥ ⥫.  ⫨稥   ७⣥᪨ ⥬ ᬮ,  ஫   ।⮢, ⥬  Vivid   ࣨ 襤 ᪢ । ७⣥᪨ 祩, । ⮬  , ࠪ     㣨  ஫ ⠭権.  ᥣ譨  ᭮ த  Vivid ⢫  ।  ⮢, ᪮ ࠫ쭮 ࠢ 樨 [Federal Aviation Administration] ⨫ ய⠬ ஢  ᮡ   ᯥ祭 ᭮. [⮣  ।⠢ Vivid Technologies]

 ⠪ 梨묨 ꥪ⠬, ⠪ ⮢묨 ࠦ᪨ ࣠    ⠪ ᮪ 㯭 ⮪᪨     ⠭ ᥬ   ᫥  ঠ ॢ  ਧ  ⮣,    㤠? ࠢ⥫⢮    ᪫  ⥫쭮 ⢥   .




饥  ਧ


ᬮ  ,  ⠪  ⠡- B'nai B'rith ந諠    ᫥  ३ 800  TWA  ५ 1997 ,   䥪⨢ ।  ᪨ ४権  졥    ⮢. ᬮ ᠦ஢   䥪,  楫ﬨ ⠭ .   뫪 ⮩ ࠢ ᮬ     ਭ ᢮ , ᪮   ஡ઠ   ⢮ ਩ 筮, ⮡ 㡨 楫 த.

  ᥣ ⢮ 㬠襤訥  䠭⨪.  ﭭ 㢥稢 㯭 ⨢ 孮  ⠢. 㦥 ⢮ 㬠襤訩 㤭   㡨    㦨楢.  ⮬᪨ 㦨   祫     .  ࠧ ४  ﬨ ᨡ᪮ 梨   , 㬥  㡨   ஬ ᭮ . ᭮ ⮨  ⮬,   饬 ࠧ⨨ ᮡ⨩  ᯮ殮 ࠧ  襢쭮 祫  楫 ᥭ ⨢ 孮,    ᯮ짮 ⨢ ⢠  楫.  ࠧ,  ᫨ ᫮ ६⮢  ⮢ ⠭ ਬ୮ ﭭ,   㢥祭 㯭 ᬥ⮭ 孮  ᫥   㢥祭 ᫠  ᮢ 㡨, 뢮  ப⠡ ⠪.

 ᮦ, ⢮ ६⮢  ⮢  ⠥ ﭭ:  㢥稢.  ⮬ ᥫ ⢮ ⠭  ᫮,    뢠 襭묨  稭  㦤묨  ⨢ ⢨. ६ 㭨樨  㢥稢  ६饭  㬭 ᫮  客, ᪮ ᨫ,    㣨 , ࠧ.  蠭  ᮢ    ᬥ⮭᭮ 樨.  騩  ⥫騩 㬥   ᥬ ⪮ 樤⮢.

⮢  ⠪ ⢨  ⢨ த .  1980-   ⭮ ,  ࠪ ᯮ 娬᪮ 㦨, ᭠砫  ࠭-ࠪ᪮ ,  ⥬ ⨢ ᢮  ࠦ - म. <⢠   娬᪮ 㦨 室 ࠪ    祭  ,-    [Leonard A. Cole], ९⥫ ⤦᪮ 㭨, 騩 娬᪮  ᪮ 㦨.-   ६  ࠤ 뫨,   ᥩ  ⮫    㣮>.[191] ,  㤨 ᯮ짮 ⮣ 㦨, ஢ ᮮ⢮ 㧠 .

⠭ ਧ  ਬ쭮 ⠫ ⨣ ᢮    1995   ६ 娬᪮ ⠪  ⮪᪮ , ந ५ ⮬  ਪ (< ⨭>). ᬮ         ᪨ ࣠ﬨ,     ⮢  ⠪ ⠪.  १  ⪨ ,   5  稫 ࠢ. । ࠤ 뫮 135 ⮪᪨   楩᪨, ६    ᮮ⢥ । .

 ᯮ殮 ५ ⮢  ஡  ⮪᪮ ,    ⨬쭮 ࠧ   冷. 㯭 ࣠  ।﫠  ॡ,  ⠪ 砫  类 ।०. ⢥ 楫  뫮 㡨    , ਡ ⥬ ᠬ  ᢥ. ⢨⥫쭮,    ࠢ  㭨⮦ 祫⢠. <뫮 祢,    筮 室 娬᪨   祭 ਭ  ⢥, 筮, ⮡ 㡨  ᥫ >,-   ஬ [James D. Kallstrom], 訩 -᪨    ஢訩 ᫥ 뢠 ३ 800 TWA.[192]  । ᫥  ⮪᪮ ⠪ ࠧ祭, ஬ ᪠뢠       ᮧ ᪮ 㦨  ஢ ࠡ  ﬨ ᨡ᪮ 梨  㫨.

祬   १ ⠪    ? ⮬    ࠧ 祫 .   稭 ஡  ﯮ᪮ ⥬ ࠧ.  ᢮ ६      㭨⮦ , 㪮⥫  ⢮ 祭,   ஢. 祭 ࠧࠫ  娬᪮ ⠢饩 ᮧ  㦨,    ,  ࠢ쭮 뫨 ⢮.

   㣨 ᯥ-ࠪ⨪,  ⠥,   ।饭 娬᪮, ᪮  拉୮ ਧ ६   ᤥ  . ࢠ - ਧ ᥬ த  ਥ   㦨    ᯮ짮.  - 뤥 室 ᮢ  ਭ 室 ⠢, 室  ᮧ ⠪ த 㦨 ,  ⠪ ਭ ⥭樠 ⮢.




饭 ਧ


ਭ ⮢ ⠫ ᮪ਮ⭮ 祩 , ஥ ﭭ ,     ਪ  ਧ ᫮ ᮢ६묨 孮ﬨ.  砫 1990-  ⠫ ᪮쪮 孨᪨ ।, ਧ  . ।  । 뫠 ࠧࠡ⪠  孮 墠 ଠ樨, ࠭祭  ᯮ짮 ਯ⮣䨨  ᬮ ᠦ஢.    ஭  ணࠬ     ஬, 訩 孨᪮ ࠧ   㠭⨪,  ࣨ,  ⮣  ⠫ ४஬    -થ.

 1997   ⨫  ஬, ⮡   ஡ ਧ   ⥭樠쭮 ﭨ  ᢮  ਢ⭮.  室  ࠧ ᫥ 뢠 ३ 800 TWA,  㦥 뫮 ᭮,   ᫥ 쥧 ᪠  ஬.    襫     -१ 㯭 䨭ᮢ ०. ஬ ᪠ ,  ਭ ⮢ 祭 ᫮:

  襫  , ᭮ ஡ 뫠 ࣠ 㯭.    ᪨ 誨  ࠢ  㯯,  묨    ᥣ.    । ᪮ .    樯  ⠭ ࠢ .    ᮢ⥫쭮 ࣠ ࠢ.    業ࠫ ࠢ.      饩,   , ᫨      ࣠樨,  筮 ⥯ , 祬 ࣠ .

   ,     ஡   ᥣ 襣 ⢠,  ⥫  ᭮稥.   ,  㯯     客 ਬ    ⢮   ,- ᫨ ⮫쪮      .

 ࠧ 襩 ⥯, 祬 㣨 ࠭,     ஡ ᨫ, ᮢ蠥 窠.   稭 ⮣   祭 㯠  㦨   .

   [John Wilkes Booth]  ন ࠡ⢮  ࣠   㡨⢠ ࠠ 쭠  ᥪ ﬠ ठ [William Seward],   筮      ப  㡨 쭠 14 ५ 1865 .   [Charles J. Guiteau] ५ १  䨫 2  1881 .    [Leon Czolgosz] ५ १ ﬠ - [William McKinley] 6 ᥭ 1901   ⠢ Pan-American  䠫.  ࢨ ᢠ ५  㡨 १  .  22  1963 .  -訩 [John W. Hinckley, Jr.] ५  쥧 ࠭ १ 줠  30  1981 . ⪨ 襭   १ த  ᥣ:  ६ ࢮ ॡ뢠   १  ⮭  ঠ 祫, ५訩     ⮬᪮ ⮢.[193] 㣮 祫 , ࠢ  ᠬ  㦠  ,  ࠧ   ᯠ쭨 १ ⮭.[194]

   祭  㯭, ॠ ஧ ᥣ ।⠢ ⢨ ⮢, ࠢ  ᮢ 㡨⢠.  ᭮ ᯮᮡ騬 䠪஬  ப 㯭 ⨢ 孮.  ᫥ ⨫⨥  ࢠ ஢ 設 ।  ᥬ୮ ࣮ 業  -થ,   祫,  ࠭, ᥭ   500  ஢.   ࢠ ஢ ⮬ । 䥤ࠫ  Alfred Murrah  宬, 㡨 ⭨ .

஬ ⠥,   訥 30    ,   ᪨  㭥   10  祫. <  ⥫  ।४ ,   㬠,  뫮   ,   >,-  .  ᫨  ந, த ,  ஭  ⥫  ⢥ ᫥ ୠ ॠ  ॡ  ࠪ᪨   ⠭ 饥 楩᪮ 㤠⢮, ⮡ ⠪  ⠫   쭥襬. <⥫ 筮  ॠ    祫᪨   ।᪠ ⠪  -      ⮬.    祫᪨ . 筮 㯠   ,   ;    묠 - :  ண  祫   ⠪ ࠧ 諥 ஬>.  ⮣ ⮡  ᮢ    ᫥饩   ⠪   ࠦ᪨ ᢮,  ஬,    㦥 ᥣ  ⮢  ᠬ ⭮.




᪮஫쭮 拉୮ 㦨


 ਧ, 宦, ᠬ 譠 ஧ ஢ ᭮. ᪮쪮 쥧     祭?

  拉  ஡ 設⢮  ⠥,  拉ୠ      㦨 ⮢. ୠ  ࠧ஬  让    ᯠ ஬  讣 த.     ⠢  設⢮ த  , 㧮   ᠬ. ॡ   ᯮ짮  ⢥ 襢 ᯮᮡ ⢫ 譮 뢠, ᨬ쭮 㢥稢 ࠤ ࠦ.  ⮣, 拉 ன⢠  ࠢ ⠭樮   ଫ   -誨, ⪠ ।  ਢ  .

 䠪᪨ 拉ୠ    ⠭  㦨 饭 ⮢. ୮ 㦨 祭 ᫮  ᡮથ,   ॡ 讥 ⢮ 饭 㦥 拉୮ , ⠪  ࠭-235  ⮭-239.   ࠧ ࠭ ᬮ ᮧ   ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ன⢠.  ࠧ,   ᪨ ࣠樨   ᮧ ᢮ 拉୮ 㦨.

⮬  ⭮ 饭 拉୮ ன⢠, 祭   ஢⥫饣 㤠⢠  ਮ⥭  ୮ 뭪.  , ᪮쪮  ⭮, 拉୮ 㦨 -० ࠭  砩襬 ஢.  ⮣,   ᭠饭 묨 ⥬ ஢, ।騬 ⮭  ᮮ⢥饩 ਧ樨.  ஫  ⮬ 㦨 ⮫쪮 祢,  ᮬ⥫쭮, ⮡     㪨 ⮢.

 ᮢ  横  ᪥,  ।⠢ 뢭 拉 ன⢠, ࠧ  쥧 ஧ - 뫥 ⠬ ࠤ⨢ ਠ.  ࠢ  拉 㦨, ஢ ஫  ⨬ ਠ ࠧ⥫쭮 .   ਠ   ᠬ ࠧ 筨: ࠤ⨢ 室, ୮  樭᪮ 㤮   ஬諥 ஢ ࠤ樨 - 設⢮  筨 ࠭ .   ਠ ᠬ  ᥡ   㦨  㪠 ⮢, ࠭ ࠪ ,    ⢨  筮 ⥯.

ᯮ짮 ⠬ ⮭  ।⢠ ࠤ⨢ ࠦ  ⢮ २ । ᯮ짮   .   ᯮ짮 拉  ⮫쪮  ࠧ,    ᠬ   ࠧ ⮭   ᪮쪮 ⥩  ᯮ짮     ⤥쭮. ᪠ ࣠   ᨫ, 㡥 ᪨ ஢    ⮬,    ⠭ 拉   -થ,    .  㣮 ஭,   ᠬ ᪠ ࣠  ᪮ ᪮쪮 ࠬ ⮭,    ⨪  ᫠   ABC News.

㣠 ஡  ᯮ짮 拉୮   ᪨ 楫 砥  ⮬,   ன⢠ 㭨⮦ 讥 ⢮   ஬ ਨ.  㤥 㫨஢ । ᪮ ࣠樥, ࢠ襩 ,  ⨪?  㣮 ஭, ᪠ ࣠,    ᪠ 讥 ⢮ ࠤ⨢ ⮭  祢 ⠭ ,  筮   ⮣,  - 㤥 ਭ  ॡ 쥧.  訥  ࠤ᪨ ਧ 㤥 ।⠢ ࠧ  쥧 ஧, 祬 ਧ   拉୮ 㦨.  ,   ஧  ஫஢.

᫨  ⮢ 㬥  ᢮ ,  ⠢騪 ਠ   ࠢ묨.  ⮣, ࠤ ᠬ  ᥡ  ᨣ 箪  뢥 ᮮ⢥騥    ⮢. The Sandia National Laboratories ࠧࠡ⠫  ७ -  ஭ ⥪஢, ᪮஢  㦡 ਩ ᪠ 拉 ਠ ⢠ ࣥ⨪ [Department of Energy's Nuclear Emergency Search Team, NEST]. , ਣ஧訩 뫨 ᪮쪮 ࠬ ⮭, 祭 ᪮   㦥.

 ⨪ ࠧ㦥   ࠤ᪮ ਧ,  뤥 ।  ᭮ 㭨⮦ 拉 ਠ  ᭨   ⢠ ᨩ᪨ .  ⮫ :

 ᭨  㭠த 拉୮ ,  蠥  拉୮ ਧ,  뤥 ।  ᭮ ࠭  㭨⮦  ਠ.    祭-拉騪 த [拉] ਠ:᭮ 祫⢠    ᨩ᪨ 祭,     㯪 宫쭨. 襢 뫮  㯨  宫쭨.[195]

  ࠭ ,   , ⠬   㦭 ⠢ 拉 ਠ, ⮡  拉 ਧ. ,   㦭  ᮧ ,-  ⮬ ⠭. 設⢮ ⮬ ⠭権 ந   ६,  筮 㦨   । ଥ ⮭  ॠ ⮫騭 1,5-3 .  १ ॠ 饭  拉 ⠪  ७ ᠡ⠦,   ⨢ ࠧࠡ⠭  ᫥  ࠧ殢 筮 쭮 ஭ 㦥 襭 魮.  ᢮  <⮬ ⠭樨  㦨 ࠣ: ਧ  ஧> [Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril]   [Bennett Ram berg] ⬥砥,  筠  魮  1 ⮭ ஡ ⮭ ⮫騭  5,5 ஢  ⠫ ⮫騭  40 ᠭ⨬஢. <殮 ࠢ    䥪⨢>,- 砥 .[196] 襭   筮 㦥 ⨯筠 ⮬ ⠭  ࠧ 頤  10   ஢.

த 拉୮ ஧ ⠪,  ᨫ  쭮 ᪮ ਭ   䥪⨢, ᫨  㤥 ⢫ ਭ ⥭樠 筨 ࠤ⨢ ਠ  ਭ ⥭樠 ⮢.   殢  ,  室 拉 ਠ,    ,    ⮬. ਭ ਠ 襢  ᮧ  ஡  ⭮襭  ࠦ᪨ ᢮.




-᪨ ਧ


⮣ ᥭ 1984  ࠢ ࠢ࠭ ᪮-ଠ  ॣ 砫  ᮮ饭    ᨬ⮬   , ,  , 譮, ࢮ,      ஢ 㫠.         ࠭  ,  ॣ.  ஢  㫠  ।,   樥 ࠤ  誨 Salmonella Typhimurium. 誠 㫠  祬 38 ࠭,  751 祫, 45   뫨 ᯨ⠫஢.

஢訥 ᫥ ᯥ樠   ᭨ 稭 ࠢ.  ﬨ ࠢ  뫮  ५樨, ஬ ⮣ 䠪,        .   ࠭ ࠤ ,  ᯮ짮  ᠫ ࠢ  㡮 ;  㣮 -    <࠭>.    ࠢ ࠭ 뫮 ࣠    -   ᠫ ஬,     ⭨  ࠤ. 㣨 , ࠧ訥 ᠫ쬮,  믨 .

   㫠 뫨 ࠭묨.  ਨ  묨  묨 ࠪ⨪. ਬ, ⠬  ࠧ  ଥ஢ - ⮫,  98% ᠫ쬮  ࠤ樮 ᠫ쬮 ଥ ⮫.   ᡨ  ⮫ ,   ᠫ쬮, 㦥  ,     ⨡ࠬ ;   ६ ஢  1979  1980  ᫥ 233 ⠬ Salmonella Typhimurium  뫮 㦥 ਩  묨 ࠪ⨪.

 ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ࠧ   ७  ⢥ ந宦 誨 .     ,   祬   ᤥ,-  뫮 ᭮ ⨢.  ॢ ⠫ ᮮ⢮ ᫥⥫ 堣   [Bhagwan Sri Rajneesh], ᭮襥 த ࠬ  ।    ࠧ 㯨訥  䫨  ७묨 ⥫ﬨ. ⢥, ᭮⥫ ࠬ 뫨 맢  ,  ࣠ ⭮ ᠬࠢ ⨫ 㯯 쭥襥 ந⥫⢮.  ⢥   ᥪ⠭ 뤢㫨 ᢮ ⮢  ࣠ ⭮ ᠬࠢ  ᪨ 롮 1984 .  ६ 롮୮  뫨 ⬥祭 ᫥ 襭.

  ᫥ 뫮 㦥  ⥫⢮ 裡 㯯  ࠬ  ࠢ: 樭᪠    ஡  Salmonella Typhimurium  ਪ᪮ ࠭ ᪨  [American Type Culture Collection]  ,  ਫ, ଥ-⠢騪 樭᪨ ⮢.  1985  ᫥⥫    ॣ ஢   ᪮ ਨ ࠬ.   㦨  ஡  Salmonella Typhimurium.  ᫥ ਩  ⮩ ஡ન    筮 ⠬,   ६ 誨   1984 . 祢, 樭᪠   ⨢஢ ਨ   ⢠, 童 㯯 ਭ᫨   ࠭  ⭮   ࠢ  ᠫ⮢  ᫨  .




᪠ ⠪  ॣ


: ⨪쭠  - ⢮ 砥; ਧ⠫쭠  -   ᨬ⮬; ஢,   - ᪨ 砨,   - 砨, ⢥ত ᪨  .

 ⮬ 䨪 ࠦ ⥪ 㯭襣 筮  ᪮ ਧ  ਨ .  ਮ  9 ᥭ  20  1984  -  750 祫, ஢ ﬨ ᠫ쬮, ⨫    ᯨ⠫ ,  ॣ.    뫨 諥 ࠦ ५ ᮮ⢮, ந訬 ᪮ 㦨. ⢮ ஢ ᯮ짮  㦨   롮.  㯯,  ࠫ  ࠦ,  뫨  饥 ⢨  室 롮஢. [㭮 믮 ᮬ   Reilley Design]

 筮  ᢥ⥫  ⠢ 楫 ⨭ ⮩ ਨ.   ᫮, ᥭ᪮ ࠢ 뫮 ⮢ ⠭  ।롮୮  㯯. 筮 楫 뫮  ⮣, ⮡   롮஢ 묨  ⠪ ⢮ , ⮡   ᥪ  . ᪠ ⠪ 뫠 ᯥਬ⮬  । 室 ⢠ ਩. ।騥 , ந  , 뫨 㤠묨.

 㫨   ᢨ⥫  19  1986  ।   ࠢ த⮢  童 ᮮ⢠. 塞 뫨 㦤  ५ 1986   ਣ७  ६    ६ 祭 .   㦤,  㯯 ᫥⥫     [Ma Anand Sheela] ᫥ 뢠      뫠 ᢮  ஢  ய.

ࠢ  700 ਪ楢 ५ ᥪ⮩  뫮  ᮡ⨥, ⮩ ᢥ饭  .  ᫥⥫   ஫  (CDC) 訫  । 砩 ᪥  ᥭ,    ᯨ஢  ࠢ,   뫮  ਥ ࠢ 蠭  ⠩ 樠  1982 . <  祭  室 ᫥ CDC ᢥ  ࠢ ਠ ࣠ ࠢ࠭,   ।砫  㡫樨>,-   㡫 6  1997   Journal of the American Medical Association . 樤 ࠪ᪨  ਢ  樮쭮 .  訫 த ଠ  ࠢ  ᫥  ࠢ  ࢭ-ࠫ᪨     1995 .  﫨,  ᥣ  ப ࠭ ଠ樨  ᪮ 誥   ਢ   㡮 ᮧ   樤⮢  ࠭  ᯮ, ᫨  ந,   .[197]

祭 ࠬ 뫨  ⢥묨 쬨,  뢠   ⥭樠쭮 ᬥ⮭ ம࣠. 5  1995  ࠭       [Larry Harris]   ⮬  ਪ᪮ ࠭ ᪨  ࠧ 㡮 .   ,    童 ࣠樨, ய饩 ॢ室⢮  , ࠢ訬   쭮 ;   ஢ਫ  । ,   .  ஡ઠ, ᪮॥ ᥣ, 뫠  ᫠,    ௥: १   ᫥ ࠢ   , ⮡ 㧭, 祬  믮 ⠪ .  ७ ⠢    䥤ࠫ ࣠.   ਧ   ᮢ襭 ⮢ 襭⢠   1995 .

樤  ᮬ ਢ  樨.  ᫥騩    ᪨  1996  [Antiterrorism Law 1996] ﬨ, ॡ騬    ஫  ⥫쭮 ஫஢ 㧪 䥪樮 ⮢. 㣨 ᫮, CDC ⠫ ᬠਢ  ਪ᪨ ࠭饬 ᪨ .  祭, ᪠訥 ᢮   誥 ᠫ쬮  ॣ,  ,  ⠪ த ⥫ ࠭祭  䥪⨢ ।  ᪮ ਧ:

   ।० 㣨 誨,  ந襤襩  ?   - ॣ㫨஢ ᪨ 㯭 ⮣ ᬮ । .   室 ਮ , ᪮      祭  䥪樮 ⤥ 쭨    த⮢ ⭮ ந宦, 㯭   ஭. ந⢮ ਩   ⢠ ண,  ॡ ᫮ 㤮  몮. ⠭ 室  ࣠樨 ࠡ    ।  砥  ᠫ쬮  㣨 ⮣  饬.     㣨  襣 ⮣ ⢠, 饯ਭ 砨   ।饭 諥 ࠦ த⮢ ⠬.[198]

᪨    ᥡ 㭤⠫ ᭮  ⢠.     ᪮ ᪥ 1996  Scientific American: <᪨  ,  ਨ,   㣨     ࠧ묨  ᠬந騬.  饭묨  । ।,   ࠧ.  ⫨稥  㣨  㦨,  ᭮  ६ ⠥>.[199]  ࠦ  த ⥫쭮 ६, ⬥砥 : <஢ ࠩ [Gruinar Island], ᯮ   ० ⫠, ⠢ ࠦ ᯮࠬ ᨡ᪮ 梨  祭 40 , ᫥ ⮣   40-    뫮 ந ⠭ ᪮ 㦨>.

 筮-䠭᪮ ਫ < > ( Universal Pictures, 1996) ०   [Terry Guilliam] ᪠뢠  , ⨢襣 ᬥ⮭   ਨ  ਨ  䨨  ࠭襣   ⥣᪨  த  ᥬ . : 90% 祫⢠ 묥૮.  ,  ⠫, <  ,  >,-  ,  ன 䨫쬠  ᯮ  .  ᫠  2020    諮,   ࠦ , ⮡  ࠧ 室 , 室  ᮧ ⨢廊.

᫨ ⢫  ⢨  ६,   䨫쬠 १砩 . 䥪樮   墠 , 㭨⮦   ⠢   ⥭  .  ਨ 㦥 뫨 楤.

 1633    ࠧ ७ ⥫ ਪ, ஦   .   [James W. Loewen]  ᢮  Lies My Teacher Told Me ਢ 㡥⥫ 䠪:  ६ 㬡  ਪ᪮ ⨭ ஦  10  20  祫;  95%     . ⢥ত,   ᬥ 뫨  砩,  १⮬ ⮣,    栬 﫠  㣨 , 묨 짮 㬥訥  . < த  묥訬>,- ⠥    1829 , 饬  ࠭ 筨. < 뫨   ﭨ ஭ 㬥,  ⠭ ⠢  ॡ묨   . । 楢  ⢮  ᮪⨫  30000  300>.[200]

 , ࠪ᪨  । 騥 ᪨ ⠪  ਨ :   ᫨誮  ᯮᮡ 祭  ਬ ᪨ ⮢.  䠪,      ⠫쭮   ந室 襣 ⢠ ᪨ ⠪, 砥  ,   ஧ 㢥稢.   砥  ᫥⢨   ᠬ묨 ࠬ᪨, ⮬    ⮢  .




ଠ樮 


୥  ⠡-   -થ.   ᥣ ᠫ  ஬, ⠪   ஧ ᪮  拉୮ ਧ,  ⠪ १  , ࠢ  襭 ࠡ ஢ , ᯨ⠫, ࠭ᯮ  㣨   襣 ⢠ ⥬.  ஬:
 ᯮ㥬 ᠬ 䥪⨢ 孮᪨ ⨦ ୮   ࠢ ⠪ 묨 頬,  ᢥ, ⥬ 㦡 ᯠᥭ 911, ⥬ ࠢ ﬨ, 㭨樮묨 ﬨ  ࣮⥬.  ⥬ ᭠ ࠢ ࠬ.      ⮬ ࠢ.   ६:  [p59]  ᨬ ⮣,    ᠬ 業:  頫 業    ⮫묨 ⮭묨 ⥭.  ⠢ 㦥 ࠭  ३  ᫮ ⥬   .    ந ஢  ᠤ   ப:   㤨, ᫨ - ⮪ ஭   ⥫䮭   ࠤ  業 .  ࠢ⥫⢮,   ᥪ   ⮢  ⮬.

 ᮧ ᮡ ஡ ᭮, ᪮,  ⫨稥  㣨 設,   ன⢠ 饣 祭. 筮  ணࠬ,    . ⮬, ⠢騥 ⮭ ⥭      襡 ࠧ ८ࠧ  冷 ,   ࠭  ࠭塞 ਨ,  , ࠢ騩 娬᪨ ந⢮,   ணࠬ஢  ९ணࠬ஢ ⠪, ⮡      ࢠ . 襭 ࠡ ஢ 㦥 ਢ   뢠. ᪮쪮  ⭮,  뫨 ਨ.

  ⭨, 室襩  1997   ૨,  ୨, ७樨 <, ᢮  ਢ⭮>, 㫨஢  ⠪:

< ᭮ ,  ᫨  㯨 뫥,    㤥 뢠 죨   襫쪠  뫠  ந⥫ 뫥.   ࠬ   ࠭⨨,  [㦥  ୥ ணࠬ]   죨  ਫ Microsoft Money>.

  諥    - 㣮.  ஡ 㡫 ॡﬨ   짮⥫ ஢  ᮧ  ⥩  ﭭ 饩   譨 ஬ -  ᫨       ᯮ짮  ᢥ 諥.

設⢮ ஢ ,  ஬, 宦, ᮢ襭  ⮢  ⮬, ⮡  ᮧ ஡. ஬ ⠥,  ਪ᪨  ᮧ  ⥬,  ன 襥 㪮⢮ < 孨᪨ ࠬ⭮>,   㦠騥 祭  ࠧ  孮,   祭   ᠬ ,  楫,     易.  १ <   ,  ,  ந室,   ஬   ⢥⢥ ,  騬 , , ⠢騬 ""  "">.

     ⥫  墠 ⪮,   ⭮⥫쭮    ᪨, 樭᪨   .   ᫨   ⠪   ᪫, ஧    .

 ५ 1996  ࠫ ப   ,    ⢨ 墠 ଠ樨  ୥ [Internet wiretap]. 諥 ஭   ࢠ᪮ 㭨  ᯮ짮    ⥬ ᫥⥫᪮ ਨ ନ   -᪮ ᫥⥫᪮ ਨ, ᫥ 祣 ᯮ짮    ⠪  㣨 設.  筮  諥  ⢮   ᪨ ⥬  ୨   २  .  ਢ  ࣥ⨭  襪᭨   㫨  न [Julio Cesar Ardita]. ᫥ ⠭  ⮬, ⠪  ࣥ⨭  뤠  諥, ᪮   訫  ᢮ ࠭. (  1997  न  뤠  ਧ ;   ਣ७    ࠧ 5  ஢   稫   ᫮.[201])
 㣮 砥 ᪨ ࠢ襭 , ⢮訩  ᥢ Phantom Dialer,[p60] ﭭ 뢠   㭨, 㯭 ௮, , ࠢ⥫⢥ ⢠   ᮢ襭 ᥪ ०  ࠧࠡ⪥ 拉୮ 㦨.      筮  ঠ , 樠  訫  । , ᪮ ⠫,     玲  ਧ  .[202]

 , ᫨  ᫥騩 ࠧ,       ,  ᯨ࠭⮢ 設⮭᪮ 㭨, ᮣ  楫ﬨ , ⠢ 㦥 ᨫ  ⠭   ୥?  ⮪,   㢮  ,  ᮡ⢥筮 ⮬   ଠ, ࠭  ᪨ ? ६ 孮  ஬   㪨 ,    ࠧ㬭  ᯮ廊. 䥪  㤥 ⠡騬.




㯭 ᫨


 祭     ࠦ᪨ ᢮ ⮢ ⨢ ⮪   ᢮ ﭨ, ⨢  ⥬,     뢠,  ⮩ ࣠樨     㢠 樮 ࠢ .

⢥ত,   ⠢ ᯨ᪨    ࠧ뢠⥫ 㯯, 뢠 ஬ ᯮ⢮ 殢  ࠦ᪨ ᢮,   ⥫쭮 ਥ ⥬᪮ ᫥   ਪ᪨ ࠢ⥫⢮ , ਤন  ᪨ 冷  ⭮  樮 設⢠.   㯮ॡ ந室  । ᯥ祭 樮쭮 ᭮   ६.   ६ ࠦ ࠭, ⥫, ᯮ⥫쭠   㤥 ⥬ ꥤ﫨  ᮧ ⬮ ,   ௨. ⮡  ᯮ⢮   饥, 筮 ᮢ ⪨   諮.

 ᮢ६ 楩᪮ 㤠⢠ 室  ६ ࢮ ஢ .   訥 襭 ࠦ᪨ ᢮ 뫨 ப ࠭,    ਫ,  ਪ   [Paul Murphy],   <ࢠ ஢   ⮪ ࠦ᪨ ᢮> [World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties].   襭   뫨 ࣠묨  ⠡ 樨.

 砫 ࢮ ஢   ᫥  (।⢥ ) ᯮ ᥣ  ⭥ ⮢.    뫮  ६ 㢥   ⥫쭮   ६. 㣠  ᠡ⠦  ᨩ  ਨ , ४   졥 ਣ [Albert M. Briggs] ᮧ    ਪ   [American Protective League]:

 ।  1917    ⤥  祬  600 ᥫ 㭪, ᫮  童 ⠢﫮  100  祫.   ᫮ 童 ⨣ 250 .   ⨫ 1   砫 箪,  ஬ ᭠砫 뫮 ᠭ <ࠧ ⭮ 㦡>,  ⥬ (᫥ ⮣  ⢮ 䨭ᮢ ⨢,   ⠭  ᢮ ⭮ 㦡) - <魨 ⢠ 樨 >. ⠡- ਪ᪮   ᯮ  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡;  ⢮   ⢠ 樨 ⠪,    童 뫨 ଠ묨 魨 ⮣ ⢠.   㣠騬  .     稩 ந , 㤭  ⢮  ᫥  ஢થ 쭮 ࠦ,  ࠡ ਧ뢭 ᨩ, ⠭ ⢨⥫쭮  , ⪠뢠   㦡  ५  ᪨ ⨢,  ᫥  ᮮ饭  ⥫쭮 ⥫쭮, 㯠    ᥩ ࠭  ⢥  ਧ  ⥫쭮,  诨  ,   ᠡ⠦.    ⠪ ࣨ筮  ᢮ ⮢ 室 ⨢ 쭮,  ⢮ 樨  筮  ࠭稫 ⥫쭮 ⮢ .[203]

ਪ᪠   뫠 ᥣ    ⢠ 樠 ࣠権, த  ६ . ।  뫨 <  ⢠> [Home Defense League], <稪-ࠧ稪 ਪ> [Boy Spies of America], <⨪ ⥦> [Sedition Slammers]  <᭠ ஧> [Terrible Threateners]. 砫쭮  ࣠樨 﫨  뢠 , ᪠뢠 ⨢  ⢨.  ᪮  ⠫ ᫥ , ஥ ⨢  ᯥ ਪ᪮ ࠧ .

  த  ࠢ⥫⢮  ⠫ ᯮ짮   ।    ஦饥  ࠭ ࠡ祥 .  吝묨 뫨   ࣠ <஬諥 ࠡ稥 > [Industrial Workers of the World, IWW],  ⠪   <騥> [Wobblies]:

 ⢥  ࠧ㢠 ਨ ⭮⥫쭮 Wobblies, ࠫ ப ॣ ᬮ५ ᪢   ᮢ ᫥ ஢ ࣠樨.  ⤥ IWW ᪨,   थ  ,   ᫥ ⠫ - 㦨   , , 쬠  㬠. ॣ ।  ࠧ稥  쬨, ন騬 ⥮   IWW,  童 ࣠樨, ᮢ訢訬 㯫, ।ᬮ७ 䥤ࠫ . ⢮ 樨 ⠪ ।ॣ , ᪫  প IWW  饭   ࠢ,   <⠪ 뢠 "ࠦ᪨ ᢮": "த ᮢ⮢", "ਤ᪨ 権"  ⨢ ࣠権>, ,   㯯   ࠦ᪮   ९⢮ த .[204]

 ⮢ ⢠  ᮭ [A. S. Burleson] ᮢ訫 ᢮ࠧ  ⨢ IWW. ᮭ ஢ ⠢  IWW, ,    뢭.  樠᪮  Milwaukee Leader 㡫   ᡮ ।   IWW, ⮢ ⢮ 訫 Leader ⮢ ਢ ண .

Leader     .  筮   뫮 ᬮ७  客 㤥,  ঠ 業 ᮭ   <Milwaukee Publishing Co. ⨢ ᮭ>.[205] 筮  ⮩ ਨ  ࠢ⥫⢮ , ਧ஢襥  । ᥫ. ࠢ⥫⢥  ⢥ ଠ樨 [Committee on Public Information] ⮢ १砩 १᪨ 㪠,  ࠭  誮  , 訩, 祬 ਪ   .

 㪫 砫 <⥫⢠> ⠡ 쭮     <⥫⢠> ⮣,   ﭭ ᮢ ᫨  ᢮ ⮪ 㯪:㣨  뫨 ஢ ⨣ଠ᪮ ࠢ,  ᮤঠ騬  ᢥ  㯠 檮 , 檨 業⥩  ࠧ . ⢥ত,   設⢮ ⮢     檨 , ଠ 䨭 ᪨ ,  ଠ ᥬ ᨫ ६ 易 ਪ᪮ த ᠬ 訥 ࠤ樨 ⢠.  㬥 ࠭﫨   ⮬,  ਪ 檮 ந宦 类 ,   ন ଠ. ⠢  ᮬ 쭮  , ய   ꥪ⮬ ࠦ ⢨  ᫥  ஭ ⢠ 㯯  ⤥ .[206]
᭮  ६  ᯮ  ࠢ  ।㤪.  砫 ன ஢    ୨஢  100  ﯮ楢, 79    த  ਪ. ஡ ᯨ᪨ ਪ楢 ﯮ᪮ ந宦  㪠 ᮢ 뫨 ।⠢  [p61]  ९ ᥫ  ⠭ 㤠, ᬮ     ᮮ⢥⢨    ९  ⠢ 䨤樠묨  祭 99 .     뫮 砫 ﯮ᪨ ஥  ਪ᪮ ,  ᥣ   襩 窮. ਪ᪮ ࠢ㤨 㧠 ਬ ﯮ楢   .  뫨 ঠ 客 㤮 , ⠭訬  1922    < ⨢  ⮢> [Ozawa v. United States],  ﯮ  㣨    ࠫ樨 - ᮢ ਭ.  ࠧ 客  ঠ ୨஢ ﯮ᪨ ࠦ  ६ ன ஢ , ᬮ    饥 設⢮  ᮢ訫 祣 ⨢ࠢ.

 50-  XX  ४   㢥 ᯮ짮  ࠧ뢠⥫  ᢮ ⢠ ⨢ ॢ  ਭ  㭨⠬  ᥪ㠫⠬     ᥬ  ⠬.  1960-  1970-   ᫥ 㤥᪨ ࣠樨  㭨᪨ த.   ᫥  﫮  ࠧ 㯯 - ᪨, ୮, ⭨ 㦠饩 ।  .   ⢨ ।ਭ 类  楫 ᯥ祭 ᭮ ਪ楢    ७ ਧ.

஡   ⮬,    㣨 ࣠樨  㦤   ७ ᢮ 稩    묨 ஧. ஡  ⮬,   ,  ࠭  楫  ᢮ ⮢  묨  襭  ஡  ࠢ , ᫥        ,       ,     ⢨. ᫥ ⮣ 祭 ᫮   ,   㯥ᮢ६ 孮   室  ᫥   ⮢  㡨.  ࠭⨨   ,   饬   㤥 㯮ॡ ᢮ ⢮  ,   뫮  諮?




墠


    ।  졥  㯫ﬨ, ﬨ  ⥦   墠뢠 쬥   㭨樨.   ਢ  ⠨ ᮡ ﭮ.

墠  ⥭  ਪ᪮ ਨ.  1624   ᯥ祭    - । [Bradford], ஢ ࠡ, ࠢ騩  , 襫     쬠,  ६-  ࠢ ᢮   .[207]    쬠  ।  㢠   [Lyford]  த᪮ ᮡ࠭.  ࠭ 砭,   ᮮ魨 奬 [Oldham] ⠫  ⥦, ,  ।    ⠢ ࠢ⥫, ᪮   쬠,  । ⢥⨫,    쬠 ࠢ୮,  <। ।  ࠧ襭,     ਣ  ਭ ⭮ >.

  [David Flaherty]  ⥧ ᢮ 樨, 饭 ᠬ ਢ⭮  ।쭮 ਪ, :

  ન 쭮 ⭮襭   㦨 ᥬ.  ⭮ ६ ࠭ ⠭   ६ ਧ  㦤  , 祬   㦨 쬠.  ⠫,    ᫮ ᭮ ॢ ਢ⭮.      XVII  ⢮    㢥७  ४⭮ ᢮ ⢨, ᪮  ।,     ਢ⭮.[208]

 ⠩ 뢠  祭 ਢ⥫쭠,- ਢ⥫쭠 ⮫쪮,  祭  ஢ 㯮ॡ.   , ᪨ <  ⮢ 㦡> [Post Office Act] 1710  頫 ⨥ 쥩- , < ᪫祭 砥 ᮡ ᮡ⢥筮 쬥 ࠧ襭   ᭮ ஢   ⨥>.  ⠪ ࠭祭묨 ﬨ     ᮧ  㦡, 㤭 ன 뫨 ⮫쪮 ,    쬮,  ⠢  ᫥ ⥫⢠.   1735  童 ૠ ⠫ ,    ﭭ 뢠. ᪨,    ૠ᪨ 蠭,   㦡 뢠 ⠪  ᥬ,  ,    뢠,  ⠭ 짮 ⮢ 㦡.  ࠧ, <᢮  ⨥ ᥬ  ⮢ ⤥  ਭ  १⮢,    ઠ   ᮢ        ﭨ  ஫⢥>.

墠  ᮯ⢮ ஭ 㭨  ᠬ  ஦. ᪮ ᫥ ⥭  1845   ৥ ⥫  ⠫ ᯮ  䨤樠쭮 ।   ⮣ ன⢠ ᮮ饭.  ६ ࠦ᪮   ஬   ᪠  ஭ 墠뢠 ⥫ ᮮ饭, ।   裡 ࠣ,  ⠪ ࠧ ଠ  ।    ᫥. ᫥     墠⮬. ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ ਭ﫮     ⥬  1918 ;  ᪠ ᯮ짮 孨᪨ । 墠  ⢥ ࠧ뢠⥫쭮 ।⢠.  墠  ⮫쪮 䥪⨢,  ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ த ᯮ짮   ᫥ ,    묨 ࣮栬 ᯨ  㧤 ࠧ襩 㯭  ६ <宣 >.

 ᫥騥  䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ த ᯮ짮 墠  㣨  ஭ .  1950-    ᯮ짮 ஬䮭  訢 , ᮢ    ⠩   ⥫ -   ⠭ 㤠. 客   ਫ  ࠪ⨪  1954 , 뭥 ।   <ࢠ ⨢  ୨> [Invin v. California[209]],  ஬ ਫ, , ᪮ ࠧ   ⢥ ᮡ⢥  䥤ࠫ   ࣠    ॢ,    襭.

  ᢮   אַ ⨢  1961 , ⠭   <좥ଠ ⨢  ⮢> [Silverman v. United States[210]],  ᯮ짮 ଠ, 祭  訢 ன, ⨬.  1967    < ⨢  ⮢> [Katz v. United States[211]]  ⠭,  ⢥ ⥫䮭 㤪   ⠢  訢  थ.  ⨢஢  ⥬, , ᪮ ⥫䮭 饣 짮 室  ⢥ , 騥   १ 뢠  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.
᫥ ⮣ 襭  1968   ਭ Omnibus Crime Control Act,[p62] 樠쭮 訩 ᯮ짮 訢  믮 । 楤.

 ᫥騥  ஭ 墠  ॣ஢ ⠫     ।   㯭  ᥭ ࠢ࠭⥫ . 墠 믮 ᪮쪮 祢 㭪権:

墠 ।⠢ ⥫⢠ ᮢ襭  諮 㯫;

墠    ᮮ魨;

墠  㧭 ஡ 㥬  ⢨.

   ᯮᮡ 訢騥 ன⢠  <஭ 窨> ।⠢ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ᢮ࠧ   ᫨ 㯭. ᫥   墠祭 ࠧ஢   業 ⥫⢮  㤥.  ⮬  ᬠਢ 祭    ஭ 訢騥 ன⢠  ᢮ ᭮ 㦨  졥  㯭.

ᬮ  ᢮ ⥫ , 訢 ᯮ  ᥤ ⥫쭮 ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ࠧ⥫쭮 﫮. ਬ, ᮣ᭮ , 㡫  1999  ⨢ ࠢ 㤮  ⮢ [Administrative Office of the United States Courts]  ᯥ樠쭮  Wiretap Report,  1998     ﬨ 䥤ࠫ 㤮  㤮 ⮢ 뫮 뤠 ᥣ  1329 ࠧ襭  ⢫ 訢.[212]  ⢥ 訢  楫 樮쭮 ᭮  ਨ   ᮮ頥.

墠 ਭ ᢮ .  1998   ஭  뫮 ⮢ 3450 祫;   砥 ᥣ  訢   ᫥  મ⨪  ᥢ୮ 㣥   ⮢    54 祫.   ਤ ⢫  室 ᫥  મ⨪ 訢 ⮢ ⥫䮭  ⮢  祫  뭥  ⥫ ਣ.  ⠤,  -, <30- 訢, 襥  ᫥ ,  ⮢ ᥬ 祫,    뫨 ਧ 묨>.[213] Wiretap Report ⬥砥: < 塞 蠫 ᢮ ᮡ⢥   ,   ᮪⥫쭮 ⢨>.

   ਢ  ⠡, 饥 設⢮ 訢 ⢫  ࠬ ᫥   મ⨪. Wiretap Report    ⭨ ᫥  ୮ ஫, ਢ襣  १  21   ⥫   16 :

 ᠭ樮஢ 訢 ᫥⢨  㤠  ⠭,  ⥫쭮 塞  ࠭ᯮ஢ મ⨪ 易  ୠ樮쭮 ࣠樥, 饩 ⢥⢥    ࠭ ⥭ ࠬ    .[214]

   砥 ⢫  -થ 訢 ਢ   ⥫ 祭  ᪠樨   ஢.  મ⨪   ⢥ 楫:  1996  訢 뫮  ᯥ宬 ᯮ짮  ० ਩᪮ , 饩 襭⢮  ।묨 ⠬,  <ᯮ짮 ⥫䮭  ᮢ襭 襭  த  ⮩ ଠ樨  । ⠬  ᥬ >.[215]

᫥㥬 㯫 - ⢮ ࠧ襭  訢 - 饥 ᫮ 墠⮢, %

筨⢮ - 9 - 1

 - 93 - 7

⢠  䨧᪮ ᨫ - 53 - 4

ࠦ  ࠡ - 19 - 1

⮢⢮  묮⥫⢮ - 12 - 1

મ⨪ - 955 - 72

 ।ਭ⥫⢮, ⨥ ⠢  - 153 - 12

㣮 - 30 - 2

 - 1329- 100

। ⥫쭮 訢 ⠢ 28 ; ᫨ ᫥⢨  ⢫ 訢  30 , 室  ᯥ樠쭮 ࠧ襭 㤠.  ⥫쭮 訢  ਨ   2073  -   , த﫮 146 ࠧ. 訢 ஢  ࠬ ᫥⢥ ய⨩  ࣠ 㯭  -થ. 饥  ⥫쭮 訢  600 ;  ஢  ࠬ ᫥ 㯫, 易   ⮬ મ⨪  -.

,  ⭮⥫쭮 讥 ⢮ ⢫塞   訢 ᯥ稢  ᮪ 䥪⨢.  ⫨稥  童 ૠ, 뫠 쬠   XVIII , 祭   㯭  ਪ XX  ,   ⥫䮭 ⢨⥫쭮 訢. ᫨  訢 뫮  ப ࠭  ᫥ 㯫, 㯭 ⭮ᨫ   ⥫쭮  ⮬,     ⥫䮭.

訢 ᬠਢ  ⠩ ஭ ⥫쭮 ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  砫 90-  XX ,    砫 ஡  祭 ࠧ襭  訢  㯭 . ஡ 뫠   ⪥ ।  ,   孮᪨ 㤭.  60  ਨ ⥫䮭  訢 쥣- ⥫䮭 筮 뫮   -<ப>  ⥫䮭 ஢.    砫 1980- ⥫䮭 ⥬ ⠫ ஢묨, ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ 㦨,    墠뢠 ࠧ ࠭祭 ࠧ⨥ ᮢ६ 孮. ᮡ   ஡    ⥫䮭 ⮢ 裡 -ઠ. ᬮ    ஢  ᨣ ⮢ ⥫䮭   뫮   ᪠஬, 童  ⮬ ⮪ ࠧ  ⭮ ⥫䮭 뫮 㤠  ᫮ 祩. ⢥ ⮬, 㤠  뫮  訢饥 ன⢮,  ᯥ樠 孨᪨    ⥬ ⮢ 裡.   ⠭  -થ ⮢ ⥬ Autoplex 1OOO  AT&T, ⠭  㦨 150  ⮢,-  ᥣ ᥬ 孨᪨ ⮢. 樨  室 栬   ᯮ짮 ࠧ襭  訢.
஡   ᮧ ⠪    孮.  設⢥ 砥 訢 । ⠭ ᯥ樠쭮 뢠饣 ன⢠  ⥫䮭  ॢ. ७ࠢ   ॢ ⮬᪨ ७ࠢ   㣮 ⥫䮭   த, ࠭   , ६  訢   ᤨ. ஢ ISDN-⥫䮭[p63] ᮧ   ஡:  祭  ISDN- 室 ᯥ樠쭮 㤮, ,  ࠧ稢  ISDN,  ᯮ殮 ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠   뫮 ⠪ 㤮. ,  ᯮ짮 ஢ ⥫䮭, 砫  ࠭஢ 訢 ⥫䮭 .

砫  ⠫ ᣮ  ந⥫ﬨ ⥫䮭 㤮  ࠨ ।, ᯥ稢 墠.  ᮣ᭮ 㬥, 襬  ᯮ殮 ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮ [Electronic Privacy Information Center, EPIC],  稫 १ ⪠.[216]  ⮣ ⮡   ⠭ -,  ⥫, ⮡  㤮 ࠨ ।⢠ 㤠 ਭ,    㤭  ⢫ 訢 ⥫䮭,  ਢ ⥫䮭    ⠢   ⭮.  ⮣,  ⥫, ⮡ ⥫㭨樮  ஥஢ ⠪ ࠧ, ⮡ 짮⥫   㧭  訢.  ,  ⥫, ⮡  ਭ 뫨 ⢥ ७  ࠢ  㯭묨  饥 ६.

 ⠩ ᨫ  ௥ 㤠,  । ஥,  뢠 ⥫䮭   ந⥫ 㤮 㤮⢮  ॡ. ࢮ砫쭮  <  ஢ ⥫䮭> [Digital Telephony Act]  २   <  ᮤ⢨ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  ⥫㭨> [Communication Assistance to Law Enforcement Act], 㬥  ਭ, ᬮ   ⭨ ࠦ᪨ ᢮,   1994 .  ࠧ 業, ⮨ ࠡ⪨ 樮쭮 ⥫䮭 ⥬   訢 ⠢  300   1 ठ ஢.

। 孮 訢 ᥣ    ᯮᮡ,   﫮 ᯮ짮 ᮢ६ 㭨樮 孮  ࠢ࠭⥫ 楫. ஢ ⥫䮭 ⥬, ਬ,  ﭭ ᫥ ⮭宦  ⥫䮭, ⮡   ᫠ ᨣ,  -  뢠.  ᯥ祭 ७ ࢨ 911  ⥫䮭  ⮢ 裡  ⠭ 㤮, ஥ ᯥ稢 筮 । ⮯ 60% ⥫䮭  । 100 ஢.  ⥫     ⨬ ⥬, ⮡   ᫥ 㯭,  ⮢묨 ⥫䮭.  ⥬  ய 㦥 ᯮ짮    㯫.

  饥,  㤭 㢨,  । 孮 ᯮ  ⠭  孮ﬨ ᫥   ᯮ짮  ஥ 饩 設  ᡮ ଠ樨.    ⠢ 訢饥 ன⢮   ⥫䮭 .  饬  ᬮ 訢 ।  -   ⥫䮭 ⥬, ⮬᪨ ᯮ饩   뢠饩 ⥫䮭 ࠧ,    室 .   祢 ⥫    뢥   宬 뫠 , 䨪஢ ꥧ騩   ப 㧮 Ryder.  饬   ⠭  ᮥ      த, ⮡ ⮬᪨ 㦨  ᫥ ॢ  ਧ.  ᬮ   ଠ樨  ᥩ ਨ   ⤥   㯯 , ⥬᪨ 㯠 , 室  ᮧ   ᪮ 㦨,-    㯪.

 ⤥쭮   孮 墠 ଠ樨  룫拉 宩 .  ᫨ ⠪ ᨢ   ਭ,   ண.  ᫨   ᬮ   ⮢, 蠭  拉, ᪨  娬᪨ ⠪,  ⥫, ᠭ樮஢訥 ,  㦤  ᯮ짮  孮    ࠤ樮묨 㯫ﬨ.




訢 


 筮  墠   ⠭  ᪨ , ᪮ -窨    㦤 ᢮   㣨.     ॡ   ᨢ ⮤ ਭ: 訢  [brain wiretapping].

ਨ  ⥭ ᫥ 室  , ᬮ    設⢮   襬 砥 ⮢.  , ᫨ ⥭ ᫥ 㤥 ⥫쭮 ᮢ襭⢮    믮   ,  ?  堬, ਪ᪨   I960 - 砫 1980-  ࠡ⠫  ⢮ ணࠬ, ࠢ  , ⮡ ॢ   ॠ쭮.   ணࠬ   < > [Star Gate] ᯥ樠஢  ⥫⨨  믮﫠  ࠪ SRI International. ᭮ ᫥ ⠬,  SRI 㦨  ࠩ  ᥬ 祫,  ᯮᮡ ⮢୮  ⢨,  ⢨  ᫨   ⥫쭮 ﭨ.  ஥  ४饭  1995 , ᫥ ⮣   ࣭ ᬥ誠  室 ᫥ ᨥ .[217]

ࠧ,   뫮  ࠢ㤨, ᫨       ࠧ ॢ.    ਧ 㤥  玲:     㧭,  㯭,   .    祭  ᫥  ⮢ 騪.

楩᪨ ࠢ 뫨  ஢ ⥪ࠬ ,  䠬,         1924 . ⥪  뢠  ॠ  祫,    堭,    .  祫 ,  뢠   㣨 ᨫ ०,   ⥫ ,  祭 ᨫ쭮.

஡  ⥪ࠬ  ⮨  ⮬,   ⮢   ஫஢ ᢮ ॠ樨, 設⢮   ⮬  ᯮᮡ.    ந쭮 뢠   ᠬ ॠ樨,   ࠢ.  ᫮ 㣠  [Doug Williams], 饣 業  ࠡ    ⨫⭨  ࠡ  ࠧ ७  楩᪮ ࠢ 宬, , 室騥   ⥪   騥 ࠢ, <  50% 蠭 ன  ᯥ譮>.  㣮 ஭, ⮫쪮    ன ,  ࠢ.  ﬥ  ,  ᤥ १ ᢮  ⥫묨   ᠫ  <    ⥪ > [How to Sting the Lie Detector Test].[218]

  ଠ <訢 > 砥 ਬ મ⨪,  .  诨᪨ 䨫쬠   <뢮⪠ ࠢ>,   ࠢ쭮 ਬ ⠢ 墠祭 ࠧ稪 뤠 ᥪ.  મ⨪  䥪⮬ 뢮⪨ ࠢ,  嫮ࠫ,  ࡨ, ⠫ , ࡨ⠫    ᥫ騥 મ⨪ த LSD, ⨫ᨬ⠬⠬ (<⠧>)   .   ⫨稥  诨,   , 樨 饭 ᯮ짮 મ⨪.   ᫨  ⠪    뫮,  ९  ।᪠㥬 ॠ,  த 䠭⠧  ࠢ.

饥 訢  㤥 ஢, 筮,   ⨪, 䨧᪨ ७  મ⨪.  ந  ⮪ ᪠஢ 祫᪮ .  饥 ६   ⥬,   ᯮ짮  ⮩ 楫: 㭪樮쭮 -१᭮ ᪠஢ [Magnetic Resonance Imaging, fMRI]  ஭ ⮬ [Positron Emission Tomography, PET]. ⥬ fMRI ஥  ஫ ஢饭.  , ,  ⪨  ࠡ,  ॡ  ᫮த, ⮬ ஢    ⮪ ᫥ . ᫨ ஢ ᪮쪮 MRI-᪠஢  ,  㦨 ७ ஢ 㤮. ⥬ PET ᯮ ࠤ   । ⥩ , ॡ  ࣨ.

 ஥ ⨭  ᭮ 易   ந宦.  ⫨稥   ஢,   ࣠᪨.   ஭  ணࠬ ।⥫쭮.  ⮣     ᠬ砥.  १   祫 ᫥ ⫨砥   㣨 .

 1993   ⢥ ஢  ⢮  ਨ ᯥਬ⮢  fMRI-᪠஢  Massachusetts General Hospital.  ᯥਬ⮢ 뫠 䨪 ⥩ 祫᪮ , ⢥  ⨥ 몠.  ᯥਬ  㫮  ᯨ  ⨪ ⠫,  뫠 䨪஢   窮  ᪮, ᫥ 祣  ⨫  設. ।    饭 让 ⨪ ࠭.

 ६ ᯥਬ  ࠭ ஥஢ ᫮  ࠦ.   ᬮ५  , fMRI-᪠ ᭨ ࠦ  . १  ᫥ ⮣ ᫥⥫᪠ 㯯 㡫 㬥, ᪠뢠騩,  ࠧ ।   易  ।묨 ᯥ⠬ 몠.    뫮 ஢  ⢮ ᫥  ᯮ짮 fMRI  PET, த ⠢  ⤥ ⥩ .

⠢    室  ࣨ.  樥     ࠪ , 祭 , ⮡   樨   । 祢 , ⢥騥  , ⥫ ⨢  .   ᮪ 筮 室  ஢ ᮪  祢 ࠯.

 樭᪮ 業 設⮭᪮ 㭨 ஢ 㣮 ᯥਬ  ⠢  , 騩 ࣨ.  ⮬ ᯮᮡ ⠢   樥 ந ࠧ१ , ९ ᯨ  뢠,  孮 . ⥬ ࠧ ⪨  ⨬㫨 ᪨ ⮪,   訢 樥   饭. ᫥ ⮣   㭪樮 業  ஢,  孮   訥,     , ⪨, 宦   窨  ᥩ.  ⪨ 㪠뢠  ,   १.  ,   筮   ᬮ ᯮ짮 ࠢ騥 孮, ⠪  fMRI,  ᥣ 筮 . 㯯 ᫥⥫  設⮭᪮ 㭨 㪮  द  [Dr. George Ojemann];  ࠡ ஢  㭨   ஬  म [Dr. Barry Gordon].  쭥襬  孮, ᥣ  筮 ࠡ⠭,  ᮢ襭⢮.    䠪஢ 㤥 䥩 祫-設 [man-to-machine interface],  ᫥⥫ ᮧ  ,  ࠫ  १ ⭮   ᬮ  ஫஢ ᢮ . ᫨  ⥬ ⠭ 筮 ᮢ襭묨,    ᪫ 室    ⠪   ஢ .  筮  ⠪ ⥬ ᬮ ᯮ  㫨஢ ᫨   ࠭ ᯮ.




ࠫ  뢠 


⠪,  ⨢  ᫥饬:  孮 ᮧ 騥   ६᪨ 㯯, 騥  ᬥ  ࠧ襭  ⢮.    ६  孮  ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠   ஭   ࠦ᪨ ᥫ ᯮᮡ,  ࠭  뫮 ᥡ ।⠢.   ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠  ப⠡, ᥮ꥬ騬 ,    ﭭ 騬 ᪮ ?

  [Charles Black],   㯭 ᯥ樠⮢   ࠦ᪨ ࠢ  1950-  1960-  XX ,     ⨩  樮 ࠢ  ᪮ 㭨  ⥫ : <।,   -᪨ 楩᪨     ঠ,  ண 筮 ⭮,   ⠭ ⮬   ⠩஬,   ਢ   ⢨  ᫥騩 . ࠢ୮  ࣭  ⪥ ᮣ᭮ 樨? ࠢ୮   ?>

   㤥⮢ ,  뭥  ࠢ  㭨   㬪 [Michael Froomkin],    . <५   䠪,  ⪨  饭 樥>,-  㬪. , ᬮ  ,  㬪, ᫨    ⨬ 楩᪨,   ⢮ ࠫ  ਬ ⪨  㯭, । , ᫥ 祣 㢮  ⢥  ᮤﭭ. < ਬ  १砩 ⥫⢠, ࠢ뢠 १砩 ⢨.      ஢ 襩 ࠫ쭮 樨>.[219]

⪨ - ४᭠ 窠 ,  㬪: ᫨ ⪠ ࠫ쭮 ࠢ, , ᮬ, 訢, , ⨥ ⯥⪮ 楢  㣨 ᮢ६ 孮   㯭 ⠪ ࠢ.  筮,  ࠭ 㧠 ⪨  ।⢮   ਧ. ࠨ, ਬ, ᯮ짮  䨧᪮ ⢨  ॢ  ਧ  楫  ⠫ 㥬 ᪨ ⮢.   , ࠢ⥫⢠   ⮢ ⨢ ᯮ짮 ࠨ ࠧ襭  㤠⢥ ஢ ⮪. 㬥 祭 ⮩: ⪨ 㭨⮦ ࠫ쭮 ਥ  ⮬,   ᯮ.  客  ࠨ 뭥 ।,  ⪨  ਥ묨  ࠨ᪨ , ,   ⮩ ࠪ⨪  ࠨ.

⨬ ᭮       㭨 ,  ⠥,  ࠢ⥫ , , 室 ࠢ  ⢫ ⮢  थ, ᥯஭饣 ਭ   㡨  ।饭  ᮡ , ਬ, 拉 ⠪ ⮢,-    ,  ଠ ⮢ୠ,  ६ . <᫨  ,  । 㯯 ⠩ ⠭ [뢭] ன⢮,  ⢥ ᯮᮡ ।  ᯮ짮 易  室騬  ࠬ  ⢨ﬨ, ⮢   ᠭ樮஢ ?> - 訢 .
  , ⢥    - 筮 <>. ࠧ , 㬥 , ६ ਮ⠭ ࠭஢ 樥 , 祬    㬥.  ,   ᮣᥭ  ,  : <᫨  ⠥,  ᭮   थ  ᭮ 拉୮ 㭨⮦,    襭: ᮭ[p64]    拉 .    । ⠪ ࠧ⥫쭮 ᨫ>.




襥 襭


 ᮦ, ᨢ ᥮墠뢠饥     ⨢ 娬᪮  拉୮ ਧ,   ⮤ ᮢ襭 ᯮ  졥 ⨢ ⮢, ᯮ ᪨ .  ந室 ⮬,   ਨ,   ਡ ⢥ ࠧ   㦠饩 ।. <᪠ 梨 㦥  ᥬ - ਪ,-  ⫨  [Kathleen . Bailey], 訩 魨 ४ ⢠  ஫  㦨  ࠧ㦥  [US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency].-   뢠 " ࠭ ਣ" [Sheep Shearer Disease], ᪮ ᯮ ᨡ᪮ 梨 室  쥩 :    10, 15  20 砥 >.[220]

, 騥 譨 ࢨ஢   饩, ﭭ ࣠   㫨. 騩   ⥭樠 , 蠢訩    ⥫   ஡  ,  ᮧ 让 ᥭ ᪮ 㦨. ,  㤥 㦭 ⮬ 祫,  ᫮ ,  㤮  㬬 10  ஢  쭠  頤   1,5  ஢.

<᫨ -   ᤥ,   ᬮ ⠭ ,-   .- ᫨  ᪠ 㯯,   ᫥ .  ᫨  窠, 祭 ᫮  ࠭,     ᥡ  ࠦ,   : ந室  뤥  祭. ६ ஢ ࠧ 孮   ᭨,  ந ᨡ 梨  ᥡ  >.

 ᫨  ᮦ   ॢ   楩᪮ 㤠⢮,  ,    ⢮  ஧ ਧ. < ⢨⥫쭮 㬠,  ᬮ  祫, ᮡ饣 ਧ஢ ᥫ ᪨ 㦨?    ⮬ 㧭?   ,    .       楩᪮   ⥫ , ⮡  ஫஢  㣠?  ᫨  ᤥ ,   ࠭஢ ⮣,  -  ᮢ 訡>.

 ⮣,  ,   ⮢   ⠪ ⥬ ࠧࠡ⪨ 樭  : < ,     訥 ⢠  ﭭ    ⮣,  ⮣   ᯮ짮 ⠬.   㬠,   ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ १砩  ,  ந室  ᪨ 㯯>.

 ⮣,   ﭭ ஫஢ 㦠 ।  ।   ਧ ᪮ ⠪,   ⠭    ᫥ ஡ ࠭. ࠦ ᯮࠬ ᨡ᪮ 梨    ⨡⨪, ᫨   ࠦ 諮    . ஡ ⮨  ⮬,  ᨬ⮬ ࠦ ᨡ᪮ 梨    ⨩  ⢥ . ᫨  㤥 ,     ⫮ ,  .

 ⮣  । ⠭ ண 㤮  ஫   , 㯭 , ய  㣨 ,  ਢ⥫묨 楫ﬨ  ᪮ ⠪: <    ⠭ ஡⡮騪 ,   ﭭ  ஡. ᫨  㦠 ⢨ 筮 ஧, 㤥 樨஢ ॢ.  ⮬ 砥 㤥 室 ஠஢ ஡  䨫>. ᫨ ஧  ᨡ᪮ 梨, ⢥ 㤥 ।०.

 ⮣,  , 稭 ⢥ ᭮ 㦤  ७,  ⠪  ।⢠  ਮ⥭ 㤮    ⮩ ஧.  1997  ⠣ १ࢨ஢ 42  ஢  ஢ ७஢ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠    ࠡ⪥ ⢨  砩 ᪮  娬᪮ ⠪ ⮢.  죨  뫨 祭  ਮ⥭ 㤮,  ७஢ 㦡 뫨 ஢   24 ᠬ 㯭 த.

  ਭ  ७஢     졥  ஧ 拉୮  娬᪮ ਧ. ਧ ⠪    ⥬ ⥫쭮 ਭ  拉  娬᪨ ᮢ:  ।ᬮ७  ࠭ 拉୮ ஧  樥  娬᪮ 㦨. , 筮,       ॡ,   ᨫ ᭮ 拉, 娬᪨  ᪨ ꥪ⮢.

    ࠦ᪨ ᢮ ,  ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ᯮ ஧ ਧ  ࠢ ७   㢥祭 , ⠪    ᯮ짮 ஧ ᨩ  ᠡ⠦  ६ ࢮ  ன ஢   ࠢ ⠪  ࠦ᪨ ᢮.

ࢨ 좥࣫ [Harvey Silverglate],   㣮   ⮭, ᯥ樠騩  ஡ ࠦ᪨ ᢮, 㫨  ⠪ ࠧ:

 ,  ஧ ਧ,  ன  , ᨫ쭮 㢥祭. <:>  ,   ᯥ樠쭮 㢥稢 ࠢ࠭⥫묨 ࣠, 騬  ᢮ .   ࠧ  ⠪:    ᯮ   ᮡ  ਨ, 易  ᮢ 㭨⮦   ᮡ⢥, ஥ 뫮  ⢫ 묨 栬  㯯,   ࠢ⥫⢠. ⤥ , 㯯,  - ᥭ  ।   ࠢ  ⥬ ।,  ᫨ ஫㥬 ࠢ⥫⢠.  ਨ  ਬ஢ ,  묨  﫮  㤠⢮.[221]

筮,  ⥭樠 㦨 ᮢ 㭨⮦, 㦤   , ࠧࠡ⠭  襭 ࠢ⥫⢠. <⮬,-  좥࣫,-  ।祫    ,  ࠢ⥫⢠  ࠭祭  ᢮ ⢨, 祬  ࠢ⥫⢠ ஬, 祬  ࠭祭   㧤 ⭮ ਧ.  ।祫  㦨   ⢮ ਧ, 祬  ࠢ⥫⢥ ⠫ਧ>.

 ᫨ 좥࣫  ࠢ, 祢,  ⨧ ⨢ 孮 㯥  ﭭ 㬥騬 ࠧ஬ ᪨ 祥 ਢ  ⮬,   ਭ ⥭樠 ६⮢  ⮢  祭  ஢ ⠪⨪. 稢 㬠,  ,   㦭,-  ⢮ ᢮ ࠦ᪨ ᢮,   ࠢ  ਢ⭮,   ᥣ 㤥 饭  ᪨ ⠪.  ⠪ 롮 - 㯠 ᤥ, ᪮ ⠪ ࠭⨩   ᬮ .

 ᫥  쬨, ࠧ  뫮  ᫥  ࠤ⨢묨 ਠ  ࠭ 㯭 娬᪨ ࠢ   室 ਠ  .  ⮣ ⮡ 㯠 ਢ⭮,   㢥   ࠢ࠭, ᮧ  ⨡⨪  ⨢ ஫஢ 㦠 ।  ।   ਧ ਬ ᪮ 㦨.   殢 ਭ   ம࣠     ஡, ᮧ 祫, ⠪   ஡,   த.
,   ᪮業஢  ஥ ⢠,  ⮩稢  ࠧ襭 㯭 த, ஥  猪  ந    祭 ४ .  ⭮,    ஢,   㤥   砥  -ઠ.[p65]





10

,  祫  ?



 ⨫  । 稪   ஭ 뫮, 饭 ᠬ  孮  ࠦ᪨ ᢮.   ६  ࠡ⠫   ୠ  ᠫ ਠ  ୮ ॢ樨  ᪮쪨   ୠ.  ࠡ⠫ ⥬ ⨪  ⢥砫  ࠡᯮᮡ  ⥩    㯭  .  ᮢ    㡫権  ᫠  ஭ 쬮,  ஬ ᪠     .  祭 ᫥ ᪮쪨 楢  ⠫  ᫠ﬨ  ஭    ᪮ ⠫ <஭묨 ﬨ>.

 祭       ஭묨 쬠   - ࠧ  .  ᪠뢠 ,  ᮡ ।⠢   ,    㯠  ,  ﭨ ਪ᪮ ,  ⮬,    <>  묨 孮ﬨ. ,  ᢮ ।,   ⢮ ᮢ.  ᪠     ,   ⮢஢  । 㯠,  䨫  ࠢ   㯪   ⮬  뢠.    뫨 ᪮쪮 ⠪,   ⠫,     ਪ᪮ ன.   ⫥,     ᫠ ࠢ  쬠,    訢 -,  祬   㦥 ᪠뢠 ᪮쪮  .  ᥣ ᯨ뢠  ࠧ  몮 .

  졠   蠭:  -᪨ ୠ ।  ࠢ  , ⮡  ९⠦  뢭 ࠧ⨨ ᮪ 孮  ⮩ ࠭.  ᫠  ஭ 쬮  ᮬ,      筮,  ᫨ ,    㤥  㤮.   ந஢  쬮;  ⢥⨫   ᮮ饭,  ஬ ᪠, 祬    ᫥ ६,  ᮢ,   ந諮   .  ᫠  ஥ 쬮, ⥬ ,  ᮬ   襩 .   ᫠  ⢥,  ஬ ਫ,   ࠧ  ६     㤥  த      .

  祬,     ७  ⭮襭 .   ᮧ,  ࠪ᪨ 祣    .    ᥬ  ᨫ  譨    ⥫䮭,    ⢥⨫.  易  ,  ஬,   ᫮,  ࠡ⠫.  ⠬   蠫  ⠪ 祫. ,  ⨫   ᢮ ,  ࠡ⠫  New York Times. १ ९஢ ᨭ᪮  Times   ࠢ. 祭 ଠ樨 﫮  ,    㧭 ࠢ,      !

,  ஬ ࠡ⠫ , 稫 ࠪ  ਪ᪮ ମ, 饩 ᫥ﬨ 뭪.  ᮧ 㯯 諥 筮⥩,  <뫠>  ୥ ਪ楢, ⠭   㦥᪨ ⭮襭     業  稪 ଠ.    ॠ 祫,  뫠 ୠ ணࠬ!




஢ 祫  


   짮⥫ ୥,    諥.     <஭ ⢠>  쬨,    ᯨ᪠ ஭ 뫪  ᨮ쭮 ⥬⨪,    筮 ᭮ ,   ᯮ, 室騥  ,   ,  ⢠  ஢  ,   묨 ணࠬ, ᫠묨 ᮡ ⨬ ஡  .

 ⥬  孮, 室  ᮧ ,  㦥 ᥣ. 筮,     ᮧ  業  祫᪮ ⥫.          ᮧ ⥬ ᯮ짮 蠡,  ᭮ ८⨯ 諥, ।᪠㥬 ⢥⮢  讣 ⢠ । ⮬⨧஢ ࠡ⪨ ⥪.

 ।⠢ ஧ ᭮,    祫᪨ ⭮襭. ਥ, ⭮, 㭨쭮   - 業 ⢠.       祫᪮ ⢥.  ,   ࠢ쭮,  祭   , 뢠 㣨.  ஡   ࠧ,      㣮. ࠢ, ᥣ  ,      ࠢ,   筮  ᫨ १ ஥ ६. ⢮  뢠 ⠪ ,   ᫨誮 室  ࠬ ⨪.

஢ 祫   뢠 ⢮ ᪠ﭨ.    몠  権, ᮧ 祫᪨ ᮮ⢮. ᪨騩  祫 ,  ⠥ ந 祫 ⭮襭    ஥,   設,   ਬ ⮫쪮  ᯮ짮   楫 ॠ ,  묨  㯠  ⠪.




ELIZA   ⮬


ࢮ ୮ ணࠬ, 饩 祫, 뫠 ELIZA, ࠧࠡ⠭  業㬮 [Joe Weizenbaum]  ਨ ⢥ ⥫ ᪮ 孮᪮ . ELIZA ।⠢﫠 ᮡ ⥩  祫᪮ ⥫. 業 ᮧ ணࠬ  砫 1960-,  ⠫쭮 ᮭ ਨ    ᮧ , ᯮᮡ  ᪨ .   뫮 ᫨誮 ᫮.  ⮣ ⮡  ᮧ ࠧ㬭 , 業 ᮧ  ணࠬ,  ன 룫拉 ࠧ㬭. <   ᢮ ⪨, ᮡࠫ     ⮩ ᭮ ⨫ ELIZE>,- ᪠뢠  ᫥⥫-ਪ ⢥ ⥫  ॢ [Daniel Crevier].[222]

ELIZA 뫠 祭 ⮩ ணࠬ, ࠦ襩 தਠ᪮ ࠯ - ᫥⥫ 誮 娠ਨ, ᭮ ૮ ᮬ. ਠ᪠ 孨 ⮨  㦤 樥   ᢮ ஡, ⢥ ᮬ  . ELIZA ஢  祫 ࠧ, 室 । ⥩    ⢨⥫, ॢ稢 ।   뢮   ࠭.   ᪠ ணࠬ: < ७ ⠢  ਩ >,   ELIZA ⢥砫: <祬  ७ ⠢  ਩ ?> ᫨    㤭,      ࠭ ⥬ ࠧ  ⤥ 蠡 ࠧ ⨯: <祬  諨  ᥣ?>

 ⭮ ᯥ樠-騪   ELIZA  ந ⫥ ᫮  㬭 ணࠬ.   ⮢ 짮⥫  ᯮᮡ ন ࠧ  㤨⥫쭮.  ,  ,  ELIZA - ᥣ  ୠ ணࠬ, 㢫 ⮩ ன.  﫨  ᢮  ᥪ  ஡. < 業㬠,    祭 ᪮쪨 楢 ࠡ  ணࠬ, ᨫ, ,    饭  ६  ࢮ "࠯᪮" ᥠ  ணࠬ>,-  ॢ.

஢  ᢮ , 業 ᪮ 襫  뢮,  <᭮  ࠧ ⢥ ⥫ - ⢥ ࠧ - ࠢ⢥>.

᫥ ⮣  ELIZA 뫠 ᠭ,  <> ਫ ⪨  ணࠬ⮢.   [Hugh Loebner], ⥫   䨫ய, ᯮ    ᠭ ணࠬ,  祫.  ணࠬ,  ன  㤥 ⫨   ॠ쭮 祫    ஢,  ਧ  ࠧ 100  ஢    ⮣  ᮬ 14 .[223]    㤠 . 設⢮ ।⠢   ணࠬ <१> - 筮  ᪨ 몮  ⢨ 㯠  ஬  ,     ᠬ ᮡ ࠧ㬥騬.

   ଠ ᫮ ணࠬ,  ELIZA,   ਭ  祫. ࢮ ᠭ ⠪ 樨,  મ 饥 ஡ ਢ⭮ ਬ⥫쭮  ⢥ ⥫, ⭮  1989 .    饭 ணࠬ MGonz, 饭  ૠ,  襪᭨ 㭨 ३  . MGonz 뫠 ᮧ મ ᮬ [Mark Humphrys], 襪᭨ 㭨᪮   㡫. ணࠬ ⫨砫  ELIZA ६ 묨 ⠬. -,  ⮣ ⮡   ᪮ ᪮ 몥, MGonz  頫  ᫥, ᯮ㥬 ⭨ 堪ࠬ. -,  ஢ <⠦஢> ணࠬ   BITnet,    ⪨ ᮮ饭ﬨ  ⭨   ᥬ . , MGonz  ୠ  ᢮ ॣ஢.

 ୨ ஬, 2  1989 ,  ⠢ ணࠬ 饭  襫 .  20:12  ૠ᪮ ६ 㤥  ३ 砫 뫠 ᮮ饭 ணࠬ. ணࠬ ⢥砫 .  祭 ᫥饣     ணࠬ 㤨  ३᪮ 㤥 ஡  ᥪ㠫쭮 .   ᥠ,  ᮧ,     設, 㤥  ணࠬ,    ⢥  17 ,  諮   ᥪᮬ  ᯠ쭥 ᢮ 㦪. <  ⥬  ᫥騩 ,    㤨,  ணࠬ ᯥ ⢮   ⢨>,- ᯮ , ⨢訩   ⮩ ᨨ  ୥ (।⥫쭮 㤠  ⥪,   ᮮࠦ,  㤥  ३).[224]  ᪠ :

 ᥣ ᫥ ᯮ   ⮩ ணࠬ,   ,   ९ ४ ப.    , ⮡ ᮧ . ,   ᠬ  ⮩  頭 ᥣ 室  祫,    設,  ⢥砥  宫 ࠧ稥    ਢ  襭⢮ ᮢ.[225]
MGonz     ணࠬ ⢥ ⥫, ப뢠 ᢮  १ ࠭⢮. 㣮 ஡, 맢訩 ࠧࠦ   , ᨫ  Zumabot. Zumabot ᪠஢ ७樨 Usenet  ᪠ 㡫権, ᮤঠ ᫮ <Turkey>,[p66]  ⢥砫   ᨢ묨 ᮮ饭ﬨ   ᮢ 㡨⢥ 쬠  ଥ  ६ ࢮ ஢ .

   , 襩  Internet Underground, ᮧ Zumabot 뫮 祭 檨 ᯥ㦡. ணࠬ 㪢쭮 ⠫ ய᪮ 設.  楫 뫮 ।஢ ,  ਫ  ᮢ 㡨⢥ ઠ   1917 , ⥬ ⭮ ७,   뫮 . <Zumabot   ப⠡ ⨪  ࠧᨩ । 檨 ᯠਠ⮢>.[226]

㠫 ஡ ⠭ ꥬ  ࠪ⨢ 짮⥫᪨  [MUD - Multi-User Dungeon games]  ୥. ணࠬ,  ELIZA,  樨 饭   쬨, 뤠 ᥡ  騭,  ⠭ ⥫᪨ ⭮襭.

 ஭ ᮮ⢠ ⠭ ࠢ,    易 ஢ ᥡ. 嬠  ୥ [ICC, Internet Chess Club], 樮騩 ᥡ  <ᠬ ⨢ 嬠   >, ॣ୮ 頥 20  짮⥫,     室 60  嬠 ⨩.  ⮬ 㡥  ᯥ樠쭮 ࠢ ⭮⥫쭮 ᯮ짮 ஢:     ॣ஢. ᯮ짮 ॣ஢  ਢ  㫨஢ ॣ樮 . ࠬ   頥 ᮢ⭮ ᯮ짮  ॣ樮 .  , ᠬ  -  ணࠬ 饭 ।  ,    ⪫  ਣ襭.

<  ࠢ , ࠥ   ஬   祫>. ࠢ ICC :

ᯮ짮   㢥 樨,   ᮮ⢥饩 ⪨ [ 䨫 ⭮ ],   饭 ⭮   ᯨ᮪ <> [ 襭 ࠢ ⥬].   ⭨   ᯮ짮 ஢, ⮬  ⠩  . ॣ ᢮ ६  ६ 樨: ᢮६    祭   ᯨ᮪.[227]

ICC    ஡  ஡⠬,  ⨭ 㭤 [Martin Grund], ४ ICC  ࠪ⨢ ⥫쭮. ࢠ ஡ 砥   ⮬,    ᮧ ணࠬ,  ᮥ  㡮, 室  ⥬  ਣ   . ,  ⮭ ஡,   ⥬,  室  ⥬ ᠬ,  䠪᪨ ࠥ   饭    嬠⭠ ணࠬ (  ஡    嬠  ९᪥).




 ਭ


   ਭ [Alan Turing] 殬 ⢥ ⥫.  ⢨⥫쭮    ᭮⥫ ୮ 㪨.  ६ ன ஢   ᨫ ਭ ⠭᪮ ࠢ⥫⢮ ᬮ  ,    ᪨ ० ঠ   ᢮ 묨   砫쭨. ᫥  ਭ     ⠫ ᮢ  ᮧ ,     ᥡ  祫.  ਭ ⥭   ਭ, ⮬ ᪮ ࠢ, 饬 ⠭, ⢨⥫쭮   㬠   ᠬᮧ    祫᪨ ࠧ.  ⮣  砥  ࠪ᪮ ⠭, ந室饬 ਡ⥫쭮 ⠪: 祫   ஢   ஬. ᫥ ⮣  ।⠢    㣨 祫   ୮ ணࠬ,  ⮬  饭 ந室 ᪫⥫쭮     ࠭.᫨ ⥫   ࠧ 設  祫,  ୠ ணࠬ ਧ ⠪  ⥫㠫쭮  ࠧ㬭,   祫. [⮣  ।⠢  㧥 (⮭, )  ᪨ 業஬ (⨭,  ୨)]

<  嬠  ஢ ᬥ  প  - ᯮᮡ 㤮⢮७ ᢮ 権,   ६  ⨢  , ࣥ⨭  ࠫ ᮧ ᢮ ᫠ । ᬥ஬  ᤠ,-  㭤.- 祭 㤮⢨  ᮧ,    ⠫ ⥫, 筮 ࠭>.[228]

ICC  ⠥ ஡ ᠬ 䠪 祭  ⥬ ஢  ஡⮢,  㭤. ⢨⥫쭮,  ⥬ ICC ᥣ  筮 ⢮  ⮢ ⮢ ࠧ   ᥬ 騬  ᢮ ஢.   ணࠬ      ⢮ 쬨. ᫨  諥 ⠪ ணࠬ ᮮ饭: <ਢ>,  ⢥: <,   ᥣ  .    ᪠ "ਢ">.

<,   ࠢ   뤠 ᢮   ,  ࠢ  窨 ७ ࠫ,-  㭤.- 嬠 - ⭠ .  뢠  ⭮   襩  .  ⭮>.

嬠  ୥  襩   ࠧ 祫᪨ 痢  ᯮ짮  孮,  ⠭   ࠢ ਬ ࠧ .    ਤ᪨ 饭  ⮪ ஢ 뤠 ᥡ  .  ᪠ࠤ    襭⢮.  ⮣  ᫥,    ᯮ짮   饭  쬨.  易   ᢮ ᮮ饭  ᣥ஢ 設      ஢.  ⮣,  設 ᮮ饭  ᮤঠ ஡ ଠ,  ࠧ  易  祫, ⢥⢥   , ..  ஬.  ⢥ ᯮᮡ ࠢ୮ ⥣樨 ⥫㠫 ணࠬ  祫᪮ ⢮.




   


ଠ樮 ॣ㧪 -   쥧 ஡,  ன ⠫ ᥣ ࠡ⭨ ⢥ 㤠.     ᢠ  ᮮ饭  ஭ , web-࠭   ⥩. ଠ     ࠭   ୠ,  ࠤ,  ⥫,  権  ᯮ짮,  ,   䨫쬮,  ᮪    ४  .

  祢 堭, । ᮢ६묨 孮ﬨ    ଠ樮 ॣ㧪,-  ⥫㠫 .  ⠪ ணࠬ ⮨  ⮬,       ।⥭  ᯮ  ଠ  䨫樨 ஬ ⮪ ଠ樨, 뢠饣    ⠪ ࠧ,     ,    㢨.   ᮧ ⠪ ⮢ । ᯮ짮 ᠬ ࠧ 孮, ࢮ  뭪  孮 뢠 ᮢ⭮ 䨫樥.

 ᮢ⭮ 䨫樨 १砩 .  ॠ쭮  ᫨誮  , ᥩ, , 䨫쬮, ࠤ-  ⥫ ⠭権, ⮡  뫮 㤥  ᥬ ⮬ ࠧࠧ.      㦭.  ⮣,  訢 ᢮ 㧥   ।⥭.     ।,     㧥  室     모  ⥩,    ⠪    ,   .  ।,  . 筮, ⠪ 㤭⢮ -  ஭,   ⮦ 㤥  ४樨 ᢮ .  ⢥,   㦨,  -  㧥 室    ᮢ,   ⠭   ᮢ⠬.   ⮣,   㧭 , , , ਤ ࣠ ᮡ⢥ ᯨ᮪ 뫪.

ਧ ᮢ⭠ 䨫 ⮬⨧  . 騪 ⢥ত,  ᮢ⭠ 䨫   ᯮ짮  ⠢ ଠ樨 ॡ⥫  筮, 祬, ਬ,   祢 ᫮.  ⢥ত,   ନ஢ ⢥     㣮 樨 web-ᠩ.

    Amazon.com ᯮ ࠧ ᮢ⭮ 䨫樨, ⮡  㯠⥫  롮 .  ᭮ ⥬  ⥮  ⮬,  ᫨  ,  ࠢ ६  , ⭥ ᥣ,    楫  ,    . ⥬ ⠥  祭 ᮢ ࠧ ,      砥. ਬ, ᫨  롥 <ࠪ ᭮ UNIX  ୥> [Practical UNIX & Internet Security],    , Amazon ᮮ :

,  㯨  , 㯨 ⠪ <஥ ⥢ ࠭  ୥> ७   . [Building Internet Firewalls by D. Brent Chapman et al.]; <᭮ ୮ ᭮>  ᥫ  ..  [Computer Security Basics by Deborah Russel]; <஢ ⥩ TCP/IP> ३    ⠡ (।) [TCP / IP Network Administration by Craig Hunt and Gigi Estrabook (editor)]; <⪨  ⥬ ஢:   ⥬ ࠬ UNIX (ଠ ࠢ筨)>   [Essential System Administration: Help for UNIX System Administrators (Nutshell handbook) by Eleen Frish].

᫥ ⮣   㯠  Amazon.com ᪮쪮 , ⥬   㯪  ந ஬ , ᮤঠ ५樨    ᥬ ⠫묨 ⠬.   宦  web-ࢥ Amazon,  砥 , ਬ, ⠪ ਢ⢨: <ࠢ,  . 䨭!   ४    ⥬ "  ୥", "㬥⠫쭠 ", "祭"  㣨>. ᫨  롥 ࠧ <㬥⠫쭠 >, ⥬ ४   :

< :     ⢥ ⨪>       () [Cold Anger: A Story of Faith and Power Politics by Mary Beth Rogers, Bill Moyers (introduction)]; < ᪠ ਢ⭮: , ⨪  ࠧ⨥ 孮> 㤨   [In Pursuit of Privacy: Law, Ethics and the Rise of Technology by Judith Wagner Decew]; <孮  ਢ⭮:  >   (।), ઠ ⥭࣠ (।) [Technology and Privacy: The New Landscape by Philip Agre (editor), Marc Rotenberg (editor)]; < ࠢ  ਢ⭮:  㪮⢮   ࠢ  ଠ樮 ⢥ (ᡮ୨ ਪ᪮   ࠦ᪨ ᢮)>  ਪ  . [Your Right to Privacy: A Basic Guide to Legal Rights in an Information Society (An American Civil Liberties Union Handbook) by Evan Hendricks, et al.]; <  ᠬ  㣨 ப ࢨ筮 ࣠樨>    ठ  [Bridging the Class Divide and Other Lessons for Grassroots Organizing by Linda Stout, Howard Zinn].

襭 祢,  Amazon ,   㯠   । ⥬⨪,     㯨 !

㣨 ⥬ ⥭樠쭮 ࠧ  ᫮.    ᯨ࠭⮬ MTI  ࠡ⠫  ਨ , ⠬ 뫮 讥 ⢮ ࠧ  ⥫㠫 ⮢.   [John Orwant],  㤭, ࠧࠡ⠫ ணࠬ Doppelganger.[229] <Doppelganger - ᪮ 㤮  ଠ᪮ 䮫쪫, ஥ 롨ࠫ  祫  뢠    ⥭,    ਢ窠, 砬, ﬨ  ᮡﬨ,-  .- १ ஥ ६ Doppelganger 稭 室  ⮣ 祫,  ᥡ   祫,   筮  ⠭ ⨬ 祫 ⭮  >.
 ⮬ ணࠬ Doppelganger ⠫ ᤥ   ᠬ. ணࠬ   ⢨ﬨ 祫  ⠫ ந  :   ࠢ   ࠢ,  稬 ᮡ  .   ଠ樨    ᮡ ணࠬ, ⥬ 筥  ࠨ  . ᫥ ⮣ Doppelganger  ᢮   㯭 㣨 ணࠬ  襬 , ⢥   . ਬ, ,  ஭   ⠥, Doppelganger ந   ।⥭:    ࠢ,   .  ᫥騩  ணࠬ  ⥭ ஭    Doppelganger,          . ⮡    ⠩ 짮⥫,  䨤樠쭠 ଠ  ।   ୮  ஢   PGP.[p67] 㣮 㤭 ਨ ,  ࠫ [ Metral] ࠧࠡ⠫ ⥭  ஭ . ணࠬ   ⢨ﬨ 짮⥫, ந  , ᫥ 祣 ⠫  ⢮. ਬ, ᫨ ணࠬ 砫,   ⠥ ஭ 쬠  襩  ࠧ  ᫥  祭,  ணࠬ 稭 ⮬᪨ 뢠    ࠧ ᫥  㯫  ⮢ 騪, ᫥ 祣 ᪫뢠  ⤥ .[230]

  稭,   ணࠬ ⠭   ⮬.  ணࠬ  ⥭    ࠧ 室饩 ᯮ樨    ⠬ ଠ     ⢥ 몥. ᫥ ⮣    ணࠬ , ਬ: <  ᫥ ࠧ 砫 ᮮ饭  ࠭樨?> : < 뢠   㪠,  ஢ IBM?>    ⢥   ⮩  .

   筠 䠭⨪.  1991-1996  ⢮ ᯥ⨢ ᫥ ਪ᪮ ⢠ ஭ [US Department of Defense Advanced Research Project Agency, DARPA] ᯮ஢  <७  ᯮ ᮮ饭> [Message Understanding Conference, MUC].   뫮 ᮧ ୮ ணࠬ,    ଠ  讣 ⢠ ⥪⮢ ᮮ饭     設⠥ .  ࠬ MUC-6 ⭨ ᠫ ணࠬ,   ᪠஢    ᪠   ଠ   । 㪮饣 ᮭ. ਬ, MUC-6  ।⠢ ᫥騩 ⥪:

ᑠnn ᮧ , ⠪ 뢠  ⥬ 㤭⢠,   ᥬ୮  䨭ᮢ ४஢  ⢮᪨ ⭥஢. ⭮,    [Peter Kim]  ਣ襭  ᥭ  WPP Group's & Walter Thompson   -१,  ᯥ樠  ⥣᪮ ஢.

 १ 稫 ᫥騥 :

<_-940224 0133-3>:= _: <-94 022 4 0133-1> : <-१,  ᯥ樠  ⥣᪮ ஢>

__: <___-9402240133-5> _: _

: < ⠫ -१⮬:  ᑠ> <  -9402240133-5>:=

/_: <-94 022 40133-5>

__: 

_: 

_: <-9402240133-8>

__: _

: < 襫  㣮 ࣠樨 (  㯮)> / <筮 ⭮,  ᥩ  ࠡ⠥, 祭 ᪮쪮 楢 >

<-9402240133-1>:=

_: <McCann-Erickson>

_: <ᑠ>

 : <  㯭 ஢ >

_: 

<-9402240133-8>

0_: <J. Walter Thompson>

_: 

<-94 022 4 0133-5>

_: < >

 筮    ᯮ짮 ⠪ ணࠬ  ᮧ 让 設⠥    ஢ ଠ樨, ⨯ ᮮ饭 ஭    ⥩.

㣠 ⥬ 뫠 ࠧࠡ⠭  ࠬ ஥ START  ਨ  ᪮ 孮᪮  [MIT AI Lab].[231]  ⫨稥  MUC, START 뫠 ஥஢, ⮡ ⢥  ,   ᪮ 몥. ਬ,    START :

<WHAT DOES START STAND FOR? [ 祣 ।祭 START?]

  ⢥:

START stands for the Syntactic Analysis Using Reversible Transformations.
[START[p68] ।祭  ᨭ⠪᪮   ᯮ짮 ⨬ ८ࠧ.]

  [Boris Katz],  㤭 ਨ ,  ணࠬ  ଠ    ⨫   web-ࢥ ਨ.  祫   ணࠬ ⨯     ⢥. ਬ,   : " 室  ?"   ⢥: " ⢥ ⥫ ᪮ 孮᪮  室  ਤ. ⮢  ਨ - MIT AI Laboratory, 545, Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139".

⥬ ⠪ ,     ଠ樨  㣨   ୥. ਬ,    :

= => SHOW ME A MAP OF CAMBRIDGE

[   ਤ]

⥬ ⢥⨫:

Sorry, I don't have a map of Cambridge Massachusetts.

Click on the map of Massachusetts if you want to see it.

(,    ᯮ ⮩ ਤ,  .

⨢ 뫪 <  >, ᫨  ᬮ  .)

箪   ભ⮬ ⥪ 뢠     ࢥ Time Warner Pathfinder.

   START   ᥫ ठ,  , ப஢  <᪮ ࠢ筨 >,  ⢥,    1999   ⠢﫮 4561147 祫.      ६  ⫥,  , ⨢    ६ ,  ⠪  祭 ⥪饣 ६  ਤ, ⢥   .

 START   宦  㣨 騥 ⢥ 모 ணࠬ, 騥  ᫥ 30   ⢥ ⥫,      ᮡ. 㣨 ⥬ ᯮ ᫮ ࠦ, ᠭ  筮 ୮ 몥, ⮡  ,    ᬮ  १;    START ᠭ ।⢥  ᪮ 몥.  ,  ஬ ⢮ ⭮⥫쭮 ⮢      ଠ.  ⠪ 砥,  ணࠬ  ᠬ ⥬ ⥭ ଠ樨,  㦥 室  ୥.

孮 ⮢-魨  㦥 ᥣ  ﭭ ᮢ襭.   ஫ ⮢?

,   ।  ⢨     業  祫  졥  ଠ樮 ॣ㧪.  ⠪  ⠪    㬥⮬  㪠 ⮣,   ⠢  ਮ । த. ண騩   ⠪     ⮣,   稭  ।.




祭 <>


 ᢮ 室  ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮ ⨭ ୨ [Christine Varney] ᠫ  ࠤ⠭樨 National Public Radio ᫥騩 થ⨭ 業਩   :

।,     騭 ᢠ  뫠 梥 ᢮ .  ,   ⮬   ⮣  ᤥ.   ⠪,   饥 ६  室   -࠭᪮,   ⥫ Four Seasons  -,  訢 , 室   ᫠  梥?  ॠ, 饭  ࠧࠦ,     - 襣 ᮣ.[232]

⢨⥫쭮,    ⠥ ࠧࠦ,    䠪஢. ᫨  ஢     ⮬ ⥫,  ⠭  ⠪ ᮢ⮬. ᫨  ,    ࠢ  ᢮    -᪮ ஢樨,  ⠪ ᮮ饭   ਢ  ࠧ.  ᫨   ᫨ ய襩, ⠪ ᮮ饭    . ᨥ  䨣   ⮩ ਨ.    ᮣᨥ ணࠬ   ⢨, ᫨  楬 ।⭮ ,  ᠬ 䠪  맢   ࠧࠦ.  㣮 ஭,  ᫨    ⠪ ᮣ, ணࠬ ᮮ騫   ଠ,    ,        . ⢥ত ୨ 訡筮  㣮 稭:  ࠪ᪮ ॠ樨 ⮩  ᫨誮 ᪮ 뭮筮 ⥣  ᯮ짮  ᮣ  ॡ.  室  ॠ樨 ᠭ ୨ 業 ଠ 㯭 ᥣ   , 騬   ।묨 ⠬.

᫨   ᤥন  ⠪ ணࠬ,     ⢨ ᮣ ⮢,  ⢨ ண 뭮筮 ᭮,  ⠪ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 ਭ  ⥫ ਡ.

 ⥭ [Marc Rotenberg]  ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮ [Electronic Privacy Information Center] ,   ᫥饣   ᪠஢  㯭 ᮭ ଠ  筮, ᫥ 祣 ந ண   ᯮ짮 થ⮫  㣨 ᮢ묨 栬. ⥭   祭 <>.

祭 <> -    稬 ஧ ਪ᭮ ⭮   筮⭮ 㭨쭮  ஭ ஢.  䨫 㤥 ᮤঠ ଠ   㬥,   - ⠫,   祫, ண  ,   , ஥  頫,   நᥭ -   ᠭ ᫮.  㭨쭮 㤥 ⥯ ⢮  ⮫쪮  ,    襩 . < 㤥    , 祬  ᠬ   ᥡ,-  ⥭.-  ⮣   塞  ⮫쪮 㠫쭮,  塞 㬮>.[233]

᪨   祭 <> 㦥 .   1980    [Janet Kolodner], ᯨ࠭⪠   ஢ ⢥ ⥫  ᪮ 㭨 -   [Roger Schank], ᮧ ணࠬ   CYRUS. ணࠬ  뫠 ⪮ ஢  㤠⢥ ᥪ १  -   [Cyrus Vance]. ᯮ ᫥⥫-ਪ ⢥ ⥫  ॢ:

ணࠬ ⢨⥫쭮 ᮧ ᥡ  ⢥   砫 ᢮ <>  ⥩  , 墠뢠   FRUMP [  ணࠬ ⢥ ⥫].     , 砫      ࠨ᪮ ६- . CYRUS ᯮ,     ਭ ⨥  ய⨨,  ஬ 뫨   ,    ⢥: <,  樠쭮   ﭢ 1980   ࠨ>.[234]

孮᪨ ⮤ ।饭 祭 <>  .  ᫨  ⨬, ⮡ ਪ᭮ ⭮  ࠭  饬, ⠪ 孮     ஫.  楫  ᯮᮡ ⠭ ⠪ ஫.

   । ⨢⢨ 祭 <>   ᪮ ࠢ. ਪ᪮ ⥫⢮  㭠த ᮣ襭 ।ᬠਢ ᯥ樠  ᪮ ࠢ - ᪮ ࠢ  .  ࠢ 頥 , -᪨  㣨  ⥫ ᡮ୮ ଠ樨,  ᫨ ⤥     ꥪ⮬  ᪮ ࠢ. ਭ ᪮ ࠢ      ࠭   ⤥   祫.    ⥭     ᪮ ࠢ  நᥭ  ।,   㯫  த   㫨,    ஦   ஦.    ࠧ஧ 䠪 ꥤ  楫,    ᯮ짮 ⨢ . ᪨  ਤ᪨ , 㫨祭  ⠪ ࠪ⨪,   ࣭   ६ 祭.
㣨 ⥬   ⮩ ஡   ਭ⨥  ᯮ ⪨ ,    饭 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ᪫⥫쭮 ࠧ襭 ꥪ  . ⥫  ⪮ ਤন 쥣 ਭ樯   ࠢ ᯮ짮 ଠ樨: ⨬ ᯮ짮 ᮭ ଠ, 祭   楫  㣮 楫,  ࠧ襭 ꥪ ⮩ ଠ樨.[p69] 室 ⢥ত饣 ࠧ襭      ᯮ짮  । 楫, ⠪    ।⮬ ॣ㫨஢ .




ࠢ 饭!


     ணࠬ -    [Lady Ada Lovelance, 1815-1852] ᠫ  ᥬ   [Charles Babbage], ⥫ ࢮ 堭᪮ .   ⭮ 쬥  ।,  ⠭ ,  ⥭  設 ᬮ ᫨ ᠬ⥫쭮, ᫨  ࠢ쭮 ணࠬ஢.  1950    砩 ஢ ୮ 㪨  ਭ ᠫ ᫥⥫᪮   ⮬,    ᬮ  ࠧ㬭묨,  । ,   ண    ।, ࠧ㬭 設  .    ⪨  祭 ⨫ ᢮  ᮧ ⢥ ⥫,  ஢ 祭  ⨦ ⮩ 楫.  ⮫쪮 ᪮쪮 뢮 ਭ᫨ ⢥ 룮  㤠竨 ।ਭ⥫. ᬮ  ,   祬 150  ᮢ襭⢮ 孮, ⢥ ⥫ -० ⠥ .

   ࠭ 䨫᪨   ⥬   ᮧ 饣 ⢥ ⥫.  १砩 宦     ⢥ , ࠧ訥  ᫥  XIX ⮫.  ⠫,   , 㣨 ,   .  ୠ 㡫 ஢ন ⥫⢠ ⮣,  祫   ᬮ ந ⥫ .[235]   諨  , ⥫  ᥬ  㪫 த  ᢮ 楫.  ⪨ ᮧ ୨⮯ - 設  騬 ﬨ - ௥ 㤠. ⠫ 祢,  ᮧ 祫 設,  ᯮ짮 㣮 ਭ樯,  ⮥ ७ த. 祭 ⠫ ஢   த᪨ , ⮡  த ꥬ ᨫ.  1903   ⠬   ᯥ   ⥫쭮  殮 , ᮢ襭 ﬨ  [Orville  Wilbur Wright].

祭 宦  ந室   ⢥ ࠧ㬮  ᫥騥 50 . 室, 騥 ᥣ 騬,  ᮢ襭⢮. 㣨 㩤  ஭;   .

 梥 [Ray Kurzweil],   ஢ ⢥ ⥫, ᭮訩 ᪮쪮 ᯥ ,  -孮ﬨ, ।,  ஦ ࠧ㬭 設 ந ,  १ ᮣᮢ ⮪ ᮧ  祫᪮   ࠭   ଠ樨  ⢥ १ࢭ .  ᢮ 㯨⥫쭮   ⨨ 筮 ७樨  ଠ樮 孮, ஢ Gartner Group   1995 , 梥 ᮢ ᫥騩  ਠ ࠧ.[236]

 1997  , ⠪  Dragon Systems,   ஢ 뭮  ⥬ ᯮ   訬 ᫮६ -  <ᮢ  設>,     ࠧ,   - 뢠 ᪠ ( 㦥 ந諮).  1998   ᬮ ।  ⥬,  ᨬ  饣,   ᯮ짮 孮  客    (⮣   ந諮).

 2005  < ᬮ   ᪮ ﭨ 祫,  室  ࠢ  ⠪ ன⢠,  ७殮  ᯮ⢮>.     ࠬ २⢥ ⭮.  ᯫ ⥬ ६ 㬥  ࠧ 窮,  㤥  饥 設⢮ ,  窨  ।⠢ ᮡ <嬥 ᯫ, ४뢠騩  㠫 >.

 2011   ᬮ  ஫  ⮫쪮 ,  ⢥  ⠭ ࢨ ।⢮ 祭: < ⮣ ⮡   樮 , 㤥 ᬮ: ஢    ࠭  १砩    ६, ஫ 㤮  㣨 ᯥ>.

 2030   ᬮ  ᮧ  ஭ ࣠樨 祫᪮ . 孮   ᪠஢ ᮡ⢥   ᯮ짮 <᢮ ᮭ   ᮭ ன⢠ १ࢭ ஢>.

梥 ࠧ :

 祫 㤥 ᪠஢  ᮧ  ப, 祫⢮ 㬠: <   祫  設?> ⢥   ⮣,  . ᫨  祫, 室饣  設, , ᮬ, ,   室 筮, ஦襩 ᪮쪮 , 饭  ᪠  襩  . <!  孮 ⢨⥫쭮 ࠡ⠥.     !>,- ᪠ .  㣮 ஭, 室 筮, ࣭ ஢, ,  祫  設 - ᠬ,   ࠧ   , , ,   ᠬ   ᮫⭮ 㣨 祫.

    ந室,  ࠧ㬭 設  ᮧ  訥 50 .   ᮧ묨,      ᥫ ஡. 饭  ६ ⨭ ࠧ ᥣ  ⠢ ⮩ . ਭ樯쭮 , ⮡   祣  뢠  ᢮ ᮧ⥫ -    ,   窠 ଠ樨,   ਠ .       ᬮ.   ࠢ ᮧ묨  ࠧ㬭묨 設 ⠪ ,   ࠢ 쬨.

 ⠭  ࠧ, ஬  ⠢   ਢ⭮, ᪨ ?    ⠪,  ᮥ ࠧ㬠       ⠭ ⮫쪮 ᫮,   ᬮ  ஢ ᮧ訬  쬨   ᠬ ࠧ㬭 設?   묨 ᯥਬ  ⢥ ࠧ㬮, ਬ ࠭  ⪮      ॠ樥? 㤥   ⢨  , ᫨ ᫥  砭 ⢥ ࠧ 㤥 饭  室 ﭨ?

<ࠫ쭮   稭   ࠤ 襩 ୮ ணࠬ?- ࠧ 梥.-   ⪫   ணࠬ? ,  , ᫨   ᤥ १ࢭ >.

   - ⮫쪮 砫, 砥 梥:

 2040   ᮮ⢥⢨   [237]  ਩ ᮭ  㤥  ﭨ ஢ ࠧ 10  祫,    㤥 㭪樮஢  10  ࠧ ॥ ॠ쭮 祫᪮ .   ᬮ ॠ  祫     10  ࠧ  筮   ࠡ  100  ࠧ ॥.   ᫥⢨ ⠪ ࠧ?

뢠 ॠ  ⮣,   ⥫㠫 ⮬  ᥫ ᠭ 梥 ᪨ 設  2040 ,   쥧 㬠  ࠢ  ᪮ ०,  ᮮ⢥⢨    ࠧ㬭   㭪樮஢,- ᫨   ⢨⥫쭮  ९⠬ 祫᪮ ࠧ㬠, ᫨  㬠  ᠬ ᮧ ꥪ ⢮⢠,    ⥬  ࠢ  ਢ⭮,       ஢.  㣮 ஭,  ⮬ 砥 ந ᠭ   9 墠 ࠧ㬠. ᫨   㣨 ⥬,    ᮡ⢥  ࠭஢ ࠢ ୮ ࠧ: ਢ⭮,   ࠭,    襩!





11

ࠢ   ⠩ ᥩ!



ॠ㫠

:ਭ  ,  室, ⮡ ࠢ 祫 ࠭﫨    楫 ᯥ祭 ⮣, ⮡ 祫   㦤 ਡ,  ⢥ ᫥ ।⢠,  ⠭ ⨢ ࠭  㣭⥭:

 12

   ࣠ ந쭮 ⥫     ᥬ , ந ⥫⢠  ਪ᭮  , ⠩  ᯮ樨      ९.  祫  ࠢ     ⠪ ⥫⢠  ⠪ ⥫.

<᥮  ࠢ 祫>.

ਭ  ஢襭 १樥 217  (III) ࠫ쭮 ᠬ   10  1948  (Doc A/810 at 71).[p70]

 XXI   ⨢ ᢮  ᨬ 筮 ࠧ稢  ᥬ ,     ந室   .   ॠ ᮢ⭮ ࠢ⥫⢮, ᮬ  묨 ࠦ.   . ਢ⭮   ᬥ⥫ ࠭.  ⢠ 稢 ᯨ  ᠬ ਢ⭮  ᢮   ,  ਢ⭮ -   㭤⠫ ࠢ,  ண ந室  ⠫ ࠢ 祫:

ᠬ    ⢮   ।  ᤥন থ. ⥩訥 ࣠ ᯮ     ᢮ ⥫  থ. , ,   ᢮ ਪ᭮  ਢ⭮    ,  ,    㦨;

 ਢ⭮ 諥 - ᢮, 饩  ନ஢ ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ,  ᥪ⭮, 饩   ࠭    ⠩   ,   ᠬ  訬 ᪠ ,-   ⢮ 筮  㠫쭮;

 ਢ⭮ 㭨権   ⢮ ᪮    筮  ଠ ⭮襭.   ᬮ  ஢ ࠧ஢   㣮, ,   ᫮ ,  ,  뢠 - . 筮 ⠪ ,  ਢ⭮ 筮  ५ ᫮ ࠧ ᮡ⢥ <>, ਢ⭮  ⭮襭  쬨  ५ ॡ  ᮧ ⥫ 㦥᪨ ⭮襭.

 । ਢ⭮   묨  ठ 㬥⠬, ᮤঠ騬  㦤  ࢮ   <ࠢ  ਢ⭮>.   XIX  ७     ।⠢,  孮  ।⠢ ᭮  ਢ⭮   ⠪ 㭤⠫쭮 ஢.   襩 䨧᪮ 楫⭮?  ᢮ ᫨?   !  ⮣, ᥣ 襬 ࠢ  ᢮묨  ⥫ ஦    㦨 ᮢ 㭨⮦, ⠪  ࠢ⥫⢮, ६饥   㭨⮦  ⮢. ஧ 襬 ࠢ  ⠩ ᫥  ॣ஢ 室  ஭ ࠢ⥫, த殢  㬮 孮樨 襩 .   ਨ  묨 । 客묨 ﬨ.  ᫨    ஬஢ , ᪮॥ ᥣ, ࠤ 묨 ࠬ. 祭 ᫮,    ᥣ ,   ⠬  ᨢ 襭 ਢ⭮ 筮.




孮  ࠫ쭠


  ७樨  ⨫ 㤥 MTI.  ᥩ ७   ,  孮 ࠫ쭠  ⭮襭  ਢ⭮. <孮  ᯮ짮  襭 ਢ⭮,    ᯮ짮   ਢ⭮>,- ᪠ .

 㤥  MTI     ᥡ ᠬ:  ਫ ࠪ᪨ ⠪  ,   㤥⮬ ⮣ . 㬥 <孮 ࠫ쭠> 祭 㤮  , ਢ ࠡ  ᠬ묨 ।묨   孮ﬨ. <஡   孮,- ࠢ  㬠,- ஡  ᯮᮡ ᯮ짮 ⮩ 孮 쬨!>

 <孮 ࠫ쭠> 祭 㤮,   ࠢ.   ਬࠬ 祫  孮.[238]    ᯮ짮 孮    ᨫ ਢ⭮, ⥭ 孮᪮ ண 砥  ⭮. ,    ࠧ ஦ ᮧ ன⢠  㣨,   ਢ⭮ , 祬 㭨⮦ .

ਬ,   稫  ᫥  MTI,  稫 祭 ண ஭ ⥫䮭 ⠭ 5ESS.  祭   ஢ ISDN-⥫䮭 뫨 ⠭   .  ⥫䮭   让 ᯫ,  ⪠ , ࠧ    祪  ஥ 䮭  ஬饩 裡.   ஡ 稫 ன⢮ ,  ᭨,     窠    <ணࠬ묨>, ..     窠   ணࠬ஢ 5ESS  믮  㭪樨 -    ணࠬ ᯥ祭.

 ᮦ,   ISDN-⥫䮭  ᯮ짮   楫,      뫨 ।祭: ⠭ 窮   㭨᪮ த.  窠 ࠥ ஥ 䮭 ஬饩 裡. 筮,    ,   㡪, ᭠ 窠 冷  䮭 ᨣ  ⮬,   祭.  ᪮ ⥫䮭   ࠢ ணࠬ, 祭 䮭  祭 窨  ᨬ묨 ﬨ. ⥬ ९ணࠬ஢ 5ESS   䮭,   ᢥ⮢ .   ⥬     ᪮஢ -㣮, ਬ, ⮡ 窠 ᥣ ࠫ  祭 䮭,  类 ⥫⢠  ஭ 5ESS. 䮭   ᪮஢ ⠪ ࠧ ⮬,  ࠧࠡ稪  AT &T  ᬠਢ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮    ᭮ 楫 ࠧࠡ⪨.

   ਬ.   , ன ந⥫ ஢ Silicon Graphics  設⢮ ᢮ ⮫ ࠡ ⠭権.  ।祭  ࣠樨 ७権,  ⠭ ᢥ     ࠢ  짮⥫. 筮 ⢮  ࠢ ணࠬ:  ணࠬ,   筥 । ࠦ. ⠭ ணࠬ -   ⠭.     ⠪  堭᪨ ⢮ -  ⨪ , ன   ꥪ⨢, ஢  . 筮,   ⨪ મ  ண  ந⢥, 祬 襢   堭᪮ 饣 ன⢠.  ᫨  ᨤ । 設  ⨫  । ꥪ⨢,    ᮫⭮ 㢥७,     ﭨ ᫥  訬 ⢨ﬨ.  ઠ - ⥫  樨,   㣨 ந⥫ - !- । 뢠.

  ஡,  ᯥ稢騬 ਢ⭮ 孮,  ,  祭 ᫮ 㧭, ࠢ쭮  ࠡ⠥ 孮. ᫨  ਢ⭮ 襭,    ᨣ騥  ⮬ ᨬ⮬: 襭   騥 ⥫䮭 .   㦨 ᢮ ᮭ ଠ 㡫  ୥.    㦨    ᥡ  ᯠ쭥.    ᮫⭮ 㢥७ ⢥ত,   ਢ⭮ ᯥ祭.  ⮣,  襭 ਢ⭮ 㦨  ࠢ, 筮 祭 ᫮ 㧭, ᥭ   孨᪨ ४ ᯮᮡ.

孮   ࠫ묨  ⭮襭  ਢ⭮. 饥 設⢮ 孮  ਢ⭮,    ᠬ  த. ⨥ 孮   筮 뢠,   ⥬⨧஢   .    ᮧ 쭮 ࠭ ଠ樨,  ஬ 祭  ⢫ . 孮 ⠪  ⢫ 訩 ஫  ନ஢묨 ᠬ, ⠪  롮 祫 嫮쥢  ࠪ  ᪨ 롮.  㥬  ⥭  ᢮   .




⪠   ࠢ⥫⢠  XXI   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮


⢮⢮  ࠢ ॣ㫨஢      ⮤  ਢ⭮  XXI , ⠪    XX  ⢥ 䥪⨢ ᯮᮡ  㦠饩 । ⠫   ࠢ ॣ㫨஢. ᫨ ࠢ⥫⢮  ᯥ  ࠢ  ਢ⭮ 筮,  祭  ( 祭 룮) 㤥 ⢮    .
ਤ     﫨   ᮧ 㤠⢥ ⥬  ਢ⭮.  ᮦ, ࣥ[p71]  訡 樨  ᡨ   ⮣ .  १  ᮧ ⢮,  ஬ ࠢ⥫⢥  -㣨 ᮢ       ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.  ⮪    ᥡ   ।  騬 ⢮  䠪⮢ 襭 ਢ⭮,     ᫥ .  ࠧ,   ࠢ⥫⢥ ⢠  ᬥ ᪠  ணࠬ  ,  ணࠬ 뢠 ᢥ ﭨ  ਢ⭮.  ⢥ 㧭  ⮬,  ࠧࠦ ᪠,  ᮯ஢ 蠭ﬨ    ᮢ묨 ⠬ ॡ⥫.  , 宦,   ப  ᮡ⢥ .

ࠧ  ࠢ 室 砥  ᮧ ﭭ 饣 䥤ࠫ쭮 ஫饣 ⢠, ᭮ 易 ண ⠫   ਢ⭮.  ⢮  :

ᤥন ࠢ⥫⢮   ﭭ ६ ਭ ਢ⭮    㣨 楫  ⢫  ࠢ⥫⢥ ஢ ஢  䥤ࠫ ணࠬ  ।  襭 ਢ⭮   ॠ樨;

⢮   ᫥ 騥      ਢ⭮;

 ࠭⥫ ਪ᭮  ᢮ 筮   ; ஢ ᬥ,   ६ ᯥ稢 ਢ⭮   ਡ;
 ᬥ[p72] ਪ᪮ ⢥, 騬 㧤 ᠬ 訥 ࠩ, ᮧ 訬 ⢮.

⠭,  ᮧ ⠪ ⢠ ᥣ   祬  5  ஢ -   䥤ࠫ쭮 .[239]

 ⨢ ਢ⭮ ᬥ  ᯮ짮 ࠢ⥫⢠  ᯥ祭 ࠭⨩ ਢ⭮. ࠢ⥫⢠,  ,   ᠬ 㯭 襭 ਢ⭮!  ࠢ,    ⮩ 稭 室 ᯮ짮 ⥫쭮 襭.   殢 ࠢ⥫⢮  뫮   ᠬ 㯭 吝⥫ 㦠饩 ।.   뫮  ⮣,   ਭ ⢮    㦠饩 ।, ⠢襩 ࠢ⥫⢮ ᤥ ᢮ ⥫쭮  ⮩. ⥫ 室 䥪⨢, ᪮ ࠢ⥫⢮ ,  ࠢ, 믮 ᢮ .  ࠢ⥫⢮   䠪᪨ 樮쭮 த࠭ 樥,  ⥫쭮 ஫饩 ⥫쭮  ⭮ , ⠪  ᠬ ࠢ⥫⢠.

ࠢ⥫⢠  ᤥ १砩 ⨢    ਢ⭮.  ⭮ ࠢ⥫⢠   ࠧࠡ 孮,   ਢ⭮,   㦥 ᤥ ࠢ⥫⢠  ய. ᬮਬ ᫥騩 ᯥ:  襥 ⢮ ய᪨  । ᯫ ⥫䮭 , ।⠢塞 ᫥ ⮣,  뢠騩  蠥  ४.  㣠  죨 ॡ⥫,  ᫨ ।⠢   ଠ ஬뢠 .   㣨 ।⠢ -ࠧ.  樨 ४ 㦤 訢  뢠騩, ⠪  뢠 ,   ४   אַ  ६ ࠧ.   ⠫ ᬥ  ᠬ ਢ⭮ ⠭,   ४  ⮫쪮 뢠騩,   뢠 .[240]

     魠 ⢥ প  㤠⢥ ஫,  ⭮,  ⠪ 祢 ᠬ,   樭᪨ . ਬ, ஢  1993  Harris-Equifax   ᠬ ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮 樭᪮ ଠ樨 ,  56% ਪ᪮ ⢥  < , ⠭騩 ० 䨤樠쭮  㠫 樭᪨ >   饭樮쭮  ⥫⢠   ࠢ࠭. । ஭  䥤ࠫ쭮   䨤樠쭮  96% ,    ⪮ ⠭,      樭᪨ ; 96% ,     ࠢ ஢ ᢮ 樭᪨     ⠭ 楤,   ४஢   ᢮ 樭᪨ ; 94% 襭 ,   ᮭ쭠 樭᪠ ଠ   ⭥ᥭ  筮,  69% - ,  <  ᮧ ᨬ 樮 樭᪨   ᠬ ਢ⭮ [National Medical Privacy Board],  㤥 ஢ 蠭,  樨  ⢮   ⠭>.[241] 筮 ᭮,  65%  ஢ 樭᪨ ०,  뫨   , ⠪ ᪠  䥤ࠫ쭮 ॣ㫨஢.

   䥤ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ਢ⭮    ᤥ.




८ࠧ ਪ᪮ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>  <   >


<  筮 ⭮  ।⠬> (FCRA)  訬   ᢮ ६ (1970),   ॡ . FCRA  ᠭ   ६,   ਭ 襭  ।ᯮᮡ  ᯮ짮 祭 ࠭祭  .    襭  뤠 । ਭ   ࠧ  ப ᯥ ଠ樨.  ࠧ ᮡ騥 ଠ  ।ᯮᮡ ॡ⥫  ࣠  ,    ᠭ FCRA   㬠  .

 ᮦ, ࠫ쭠   ⮣   祭 㧪  FCRA. ࢮ,  室 ᤥ,-  ⥫쭮 ࠭ ⢨ FCRA   .[242]  :

ଠ, ᮡ騬 ଠ  ॡ⥫, 室  祭   ଠ  , ஬ 砥,  祫 ⢨⥫쭮  ਧ .  室 ⮬,       㪠뢠  : ⢮ ⮢    뢠  㤥, ᪮  ⮢뢠  訡 - 楩᪨ ॢ ⮢ - 㣮.  㣨  楩᪨ ⮢뢠 祫,  ᫥⢨  ਧ .

  , ।  ⥭樠 ࠡ⮤⥫  ᬠਢ   ਧ ⥭樠쭮 . ᫨  ⨢ 祫    ਧ  㤥 , ᮡ饬 ଠ  ॡ⥫    饭  ଠ        ॡ⥫;

ଠ, ᮡ騬 ଠ  ॡ⥫, 室  ᮮ ଠ  襭      㬠,  ᪫祭 砥,   ந諮  襭 㤠   ஭ (७⥫  ⥫) ᮣ  ⥬,   䠪   祭  . ࠦ : ७⥫     ᥫ ,  訬 ७ࠬ,  騬 ᢮ ࠢ  騬 ⠢ 楢 ᯮ ᢮  易;[243]

ਪ᪨  室   樭᪮ ଠ樥     ।⠢ 樭 ଠ   ᪮    ࠧ襭 . 襭   祭      㪠뢠,  ⭮ ଠ 㤥 ।    楫  㤥 ᯮ짮.

 ⠪ 室 ⥫쭮   ࠢ,  ॡ⥫ ᮣ᭮ FCRA. FCRA   ८ࠧ  , ॣ㫨饣 ᡮ ।⭮ ଠ樨,      ଠ樨  ப ﬨ.   祢 ,    祭  :

  ।⭮  ᮮ頥 ⨢ ଠ,  ⠢騪 易 㢥 ꥪ ଠ樨 (.. ॡ⥫)  쬥 ଥ.  饥 ६ ॡ⥫     ⭮ ଠ樨  ᢮    ,    ⪠  ᪥ ࠡ  ७   ।.  ࠢ  㤠 訡筮 ଠ樨  ॡ ,    ;

 砥 ᮢ⭮ , ਬ,  砥 ⢠ ,  ண 稫,  ஭   饭  ⮣,  ⨢ ଠ 㤥 祭  ;

   筥, ⮡  砥, ᫨ ᮡ ଠ  ।ᯮᮡ ⮢   ࠢ 訡    ୮    ᫥ 㤠,      饭  ⪮, 㯫    㤥 থ.    யᠭ  ;

ॡ⥫   饭  ࠧ,    訢  뫠 ଠ.    稭 ।⠢  -  裡  ᬮ७   ਥ  ࠡ, 뤠 ।  ..;

ॡ⥫   樨,   ।⭠ ଠ ।⠢ ।  ࠡ⮤⥫;

   ࠢ   ᥩ ᮡ࠭   ଠ樥.    ।⠢ ᯫ⭮   ०  ࠧ  ;

   ࠢ ࠢ  ४ ଠ  ᢮ ,   । , 樭᪨ , ,   㣨 . ᫨ ॡ⥫  ଠ   ਩  饬 ,  ॡ⥫   ࠢ     ᥡ ஡ ࠧ᭥ ᯮ୮ 䠪.  訩  뢠 孮 ᮪   㣨 ⮤, 騥  ࠡ  設⠥ ଠ樥.   ᯮ -,  ᪨, ᬠ-  設⠥ 稯.     ࠢ ,     室   ன⢠. ,    ।⭮ ଠ樥,    ࠢ ४஢  , ᫨  訡.




८᫥ ࠧ襭


襭  ᭮ ᮢ६ ࠢ. ⮡  ࠧ襭,   ⨣ ।    塞; 祫  ﭨ ﭥ  ᯮᮡ 㣮 稭    ਤ᪨ 稬 ࠧ襭.  ,   ,  祫   ⪮ நନ஢,      ࠧ襭.

襭 ॢ⨫   . 樭᪨ ०  客  ॡ  樥⮢ ᠭ  ࠧ襭,  ஬  ᠭ: <   ࠧ襭    ଠ樥  㣮  ᪮쪮 㣮>.    뢠   ⥫, ਬ  ॠ樨.  㯥ଠથ 㯠⥫ 뢠   ⨥  ᪮ ணࠬ,    ,   㤥   ଠ樥   㯪.

襭 - ⥫쭠 ,  ॣ㫨饥  ⥫⢮   ९ᠭ  楫 ࠭祭  ᮣ襭,     ॡ⥫ﬨ. 襭    宦  㫨  ஭ ,  訢騥 ࠧ襭 ࣠樨 㫨 ᫮ ⪮  ᭮. ᥮騥   ࠧ襭   饭.




 ୮ ᭮


 ⮩  ⭮     ୮ ᭮   ଠ樨  ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.  ᮦ, ॡ    ᭮ ஢  ᪠    ந⥫ﬨ, ⠪  짮⥫ﬨ  ⥬.

ਬ,  1980-    ⨢ ࠧ ⮢    裡,    孮 뫨 ᮫⭮ 饭묨.  ⥬ । ଠ   ஢:   ࠤਥ   墠 ᨣ  㧭 ᮤন ᮮ饭.  ࠧ稢  ⥬ ந⥫ ஫஢ ,   頫 訢  ᨣ.   ।᪠㥬 - ⪨ 砥,  ࠤᨣ  蠭.

 -    ० ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.  ᠬ  ᥡ      孨᪨ . 孮     ᮣᮢ묨, ⮡ ࠭ ᢮  ᯥ ਢ⭮.   ਢ⭮ ଠ樨  室    , ᮮ⢥騥 ⠢ .




饭 


  1972  १  ᮭ ᠫ 㬥 92-484 - <   業 孮> [Office of Technology Assessment, OTA]. ਭ ,  ਧ  䠪,   ࠢ⥫⢥ 襭 ਭ  ⢨ । 孮,   ⮬ 孮 ࠧ ⮫쪮 ,    ᯥ  ᫥.  ᨫ:

ࠫ ⢠, ।⢥ 稭騥   饥 ६,  ।祭  ।⠢ ⥫쭮 ⢨  ᨬ  ᮡ࠭ ⭮  ᢮६ ଠ樨, 饩 ⥭樠 ᫥⢨ 孮᪨ ਫ. 騥  ᯮ殮  堭  ।祭  ।⠢ ⥫쭮  ⠪ ଠ樨.[244]

᭮  뫮 ᮧ ᨬ  業 孮  ᫥騬 ﬨ.

1. 騥  ⥭樠 ᫥⢨ ७ 孮  孮᪨ ணࠬ.

2.  ⠭ 稭-᫥⢥ 裡.

3.। ୠ⨢ 孮᪨ ⮤ ॠ樨 । ணࠬ.

4.। ୠ⨢ ணࠬ  ⨦ ⠢ 楫.

5.⢫ ண஢  ࠢ ᫥⢨ ॠ樨 ୠ⨢ ⮤  ணࠬ.

6.।⠢ १ ᪨ ᫥ ᮮ⢥騬 ࣠ ⥫쭮 .

7.। ,    ⢫ ண  業, ᫥  ࠣ 1-5, ॡ ஢ ⥫ ᫥  ᡮ .

8. ᮮ⢥⢨  ࠧ (d) ⢫  祭 ᮮ⢥ 㯮祭 ࣠ ᮯ ⥫쭮.

OTA   稩  ᮧ    権. ,   ,  㡫   ⥬,   ᨫ  .  ⨫   ⠪  ஡,  ᫮ , 㭠த ࠢ 孮ﬨ ࠢ࠭, ᨢ ७  ࠡ祬   ஢  .  饩 ᫮  㡫 741 ,   1995   뫮 ନ஢  ࠭ ᮬ, 設⢮  ஬ ⠢﫨 㡫   㭨⮦ ᢮  ண஢ 饥     20  ஢  嬨भ .

 㯮  , ᪮ ,  祬  㣮 䥤ࠫ쭮 ⢮, 뫮  襩 ⥯ ⥭⭮   ﭨ 孮  ᮭ ਢ⭮.  741 饭   175 ᠫ ᮢ ਢ⭮. 饭  1988    <⥬ ஭   ਢ⭮ 筮> [Electronic Record Systems and Individual Privacy] ।⢥ ᬠਢ  , 騥   (㦤  ன  ⮩ ),  ஢ ࠫ  ਢ⭮  ୮ ᭮.  ᬠਢ    㤭, , ਬ,   <஭ ᬮ騪:  孮,  殮> [The Electronic Supervisor: New Technology, New Tensions]. ஬ ⮣,  ᯥ稢 ஬  ॡ 믮   ࠦ᪨ ᢮,  ⭮ ਬ⥫쭮  訢,      ⥬ ⠭樮 .

  ࠣ,  த  ⮢  ᢮ 롮 ।⠢⥫ 㭨⮦ .  쥧   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  XXI     ᥡ ᮧ ⮣ 樮쭮 ﭨ.




㯨  ᮡ⢥ ਢ⭮


   ⠭ 쭮 室 ஢ ਢ⭮,  ,   ᥡ ⭮  ⨬ ஢ -    室 ,- ᥣ   㯨  ᥡ ⥫ ਢ⭮. 㤨⥫쭮,  , 騥 ⢮   ।, 㦤  襭 ஢ ਢ⭮.  ࠧ  㯪 ਢ⭮   ਧ뢮  ࠢࠢ: ,  㦤  ⮬,  ࠢ,  ᥡ  .

 XXI  ਯ⮣᪨ ।⢠, ८ࠧ騥 ଠ ⠪ ࠧ,  , ஬    㪠  ⥫,  ᬮ  ஢, ⠭   ᭮ ⥩,    ᯮ騥 죠   㯠 ᥡ ਢ⭮.

筮 ⠪ ,   ࠧ ஢ 䨤樠쭮,   ࠧ  ਯ⮣᪮ .  ਯ⮣᪨ ।⢠  ଠ    ।,   ଠ,  㦥 諠   祭. 㣨 ਯ⮣᪨ ।⢠  ࠭ ଠ.   ਬ ਯ⮣䨨   ⠫ 䨭ᮢ ࠭権  ᮪⨥ 筮 ⭨  ஭ ᮮ⢠.
   । ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮  ⥬ Freedom,[p73] ࠧࠡ⠭ ᪮ ௮樥 Zero-Knowledge Systems.[245] ⥬ Freedom ।祭   ᬮ ࠭  ୥,  ஭ ⮩    ७ Usenet (㯯 ⥩). ⥬ 㭪樮   ᯥ樠 ࢥ஢, ࠧᠭ  ᥬ .  -  ᫠ ᮮ饭  ୥, ᬮ web-࠭  ਭ ⨥  㣮 ஭ ࠭樨, ஢ ᮮ饭 뫠   ⮣ 祫    ࢥ஢ Freedom.  ࢥ 뫠 ᮮ饭  ன ࢥ,   ᢮ । 뫠   ⨩,   ࠢ   祭.  ࠢ塞 ᮮ饭 ஢  ࠧ,  ᫥⥫ ᯮ짮 祩 ࢥ஢. ன⢮ ⥬    祫, 墠뢠饬 ᮮ饭 ( 饬 ஫    ࢥ஢ Freedom), ६ 㧭  筮 ࠢ⥫ ᮮ饭  ᮤন ᮮ饭.[p74] ᪨ Zero-Knowledge ࠧ⨫ ࢥ  ᥬ , ⮡ ᨬ쭮 㤭  ⤥쭮 ⮣ ࠢ⥫⢠   ᮤন   ࢥ஢, ⢮  뫪 ⭮ ᮮ饭.
  㢨  ਬ ⥬ Freedom, ਯ⮣    ।⢮ ஫  ࠭ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.  ।  ਯ⮣䨨 ⢥ত,   孮  楥   ਢ⭮,  ࠪ᪨  ᬠਢ  ⮩  ஡.  , , ᯮ ਯ⮣,      訢. ᯮ ஭ 筮[p75]  ᮭ樨 㯪 ଠ樨,  ᬮ  横  㦠 ୮  䨤樠쭮.    ६ ஢       襭.

 㬥  ७ ⨢稥, 饥  ⮬,  ਯ⮣  ᯥ稢 ਢ⭮,   頥 ଠ.      ॡ  ᢮ ⮢ ਬ ਯ⮣᪨ ।  뫪 䨭ᮢ ଠ樨 १ ୥. ਯ⮣ ࠭ 䨤樠쭮 ⮩ 뫪.  ᫨ ப ⠭   ଠ  web-ᠩ, 室饣  㣮   ।, ᫥ 祣 த  ਮ⥭  ,  ਢ⭮ -⠪ 㤥 襭,  ᠬ  ᥡ ଠ 뫠  ஢  ६ ।.

ਯ⮣ - १砩 魠 孮,  饥 ஭     ࠧ㬭 ᯮ짮.  ਯ⮣ ᠬ  ᥡ ࠭  ਢ⭮  饬  , 祬 ९   . ஬ ⮣, ਯ⮣ ᮧ ⥫ 㧪  짮⥫. , ᯮ騩 ⥬ Freedom, , ਬ, ஢쭮 ( 砩)  ᢮  筮  ⥪ ᮮ饭.  ᪮ ਯ⮣     । ᯥ祭 䨤樠쭮,  - 䨤樠쭮 뢠 襭  ᥪ ࠧ蠥,  㦥  ਯ⮣  ᬮ ⠭ 䨤樠쭮.
 殮 ᥩ ⮩   ࠧ㬥,  ਯ⮣ 㤥 易⥫쭮  ஭ ॠ쭮 XXI ,    ⠫ ⢫, ⮡   ⮬  ஡. 稭 ⮣  ⮬,   ⭮  ᥡ  <ய᪨>[p76]  ஭ ਯ⮣᪮ 饣.  ਢ⭮   ਯ⮣䨨 筠   ਢ⭮   㬠 誮. 筮,   -થ  室  㬠묨 誠  , ⮡  ࠦ  뢠 ,   ਥ, ਬ,  㭨᪮ ।.




५ 


 室  祭 ᭮ 窥  樨 ਢ⭮.  䮭 ⮣,       ᮧ  ਢ⭮, ࠢ⥫⢠      ॣ㫨஢ ⮩ ஡.  ⥫  祣  ⮨ ᯥ ᢮ ਢ⭮ ᮡ⢥묨 ।⢠.  ᫨ ࠢ⥫⢮  㤥 ⨬      ᯥ祭 室  ஢ ਢ⭮, -  筮  쬥    ᢮ 㪨.

     १ ⥫쭮 ⭨ ਢ⭮ ࠤ쭮 ⮫.   㯠   樠 ,  ਢ  ஢ ⢥  ஡ ਢ⭮.    楫 ਤ ᭮ ⮪ ਢ⭮  ᬥ⢮୮ ࠢ⥫⢥ ⨪  ᯥ祭.   : < ஫- - !>. ᬮਬ ᫥騥 ᮡ.
  1992   ୮ ୨ 뫠 ନ஢ ᫠ ࣠ 㯯   Cypher-punks.[246] ய ⨫ ᥡ ࠭ ᮪ ਯ⮣᪮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭  㡫   ணࠬ ᯥ祭, ஥ 类 ᯥ稢 ਢ⭮,   ᠬ   ᯮ  ஢.[p77]  襤訥  ய ਯ뢠 ᫥  ⢨,   ᯮ   ⮢ ਯ⮣᪮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭  㡫筮 ⨥ ࠭ ᥪ ⬮ ஢. ᮪ 뫪 ய ᯮ짮 ⠪  ࠭ ଠ樨  㦥  ᪮ ணࠬ ᯥ祭 訡   ᭮,  ᫨ ࠭ ⮩ ଠ樨  ࣭ ᭮ 䨭ᮢ ଠ.

ୠ  䥤 [Jeffrey Rothfeder]  ᢮  <ਢ⭮  த> [Privacy for Sale] 訫,   䥪⨢ ᯮᮡ 樨 ⪠ ਢ⭮   롮  業 ᢮ ਢ⭮   㡫 ᥣ,   㧭  ⮬ 祫.

< ࠫ  ஢ન   [Dan Rather], ᪮,   ਫ,  㦥⢥  砫 ९ CBS ।ਭ ᫥    ᢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.  ⮬ ⮣    室饩 ன  業 ⠡ [ଠ樮] 㭤>.[247]
   ਢ⭮    । 誮.   । 誮  ⮭,  㨧,  易⥫쭮 襭  騬 䨪樮 窨 饣,  ன 뫨 ᥭ  , ⨯ Pepsi  -, 騥 祫 祫 [Rachel Winchel]  ⠭ 設⮭ [Jonathan Washington] ⨢ ⮬.  ,  -   (  ᭮  ப࠭ ⬥, ⭮   Code 39)  뢠  樠쭮 客 饣,   襭 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act[p78]1974   Privacy Act[p79]1974 .[248] 祭 諨  誮, 뢠 㣨,    Code 39, ᫥ 祣 㡥 ᢮ ⮢饩 १ -  ᢮ 祪   .   誮 ⢥ত,   蠥    ࠢ ॡ  窨  -, 30 ᥭ 1999  誮쭠  稫   騬  -.   饥,  ᥡ ।⠢ 殢  ਢ⭮,  蠣 㣨 ࠤ ࣠権, ⠪   㯯 ᪮ ਧ Earth First!  㯯 ⨢⮢    ACT UP!.   ⨢, ᮬ,   樠쭮 ॣ஢ ࣠権   ਢ⭮,  ⢨, ,    ॠ   ᪮ ७.  ᥩ  ⭨ ਢ⭮ 宭 㦤 室 ᮧ 쭮 ஭.

  ஭     ᢮ ⢨ﬨ.  㦥  ࠪ⨪ ᪠ ଠ樨, ਬ   ᭨  ᯫ⭮ ᪨  ୠ.    ਢ⭮    ᫠  , ஢   㡥  ⠢   ᢮  樠쭮 客, <砩>  訡  ᠭ ᢮ , .. 쭮 ᭨ ⢮ ଠ樮 ⮪   ,    ਭ ⢥   ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮.

 ᫥ ⨫⨥ 讥 ⢮ 㯯, ⠨ ࠢ ᥪ㠫⮢, 﫨  㦥 ࠪ⨪ <祪> - ⠢ ⨪  ᬥ   ᥪ㠫⮢.    ਢ⭮  ᯮ짮 <窮 >, .. 㡫樥 , ᮢ, ஢ 譨 ⥫䮭, ஢ 樠쭮 客, 室  㯠⥫᪨ ਢ祪 ,  ࣠樨, ⨢ 騥 ᥣ  ਢ⭮. 쪮 ।⠢,  㤥 ࣠  ⥫䮭    १ , ᯥ樠饩  ४  ⥫䮭,  ⮪ 襭     , 饩  થ⨭!

, ᫥ ⮩ 窨   ଠ樮 ਧ.  ⢥  ⨢ ࠪ⨪ 筮 ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ ଠ樮    뢠   ஢ 室   ଠ,    <᢮> ௮⨢  , ࣠  ଠ樨    ୥.

 筮  ,  ࠢ  ਢ⭮   ᯥ祭   樢   ⥫ ,   ଠ樮 ᨫ,  ,  ࠤ訥  筮   㤠   ⨢, ᯮ짮 <窨>  ଠ樮 ਧ, ᫨  㣨   묨.
।᪠ 饣 ᥣ 뫮 ᪮ .  ᫨誮  । ⥫,    ୥   ᠬ த㬠  ࠢ ।᪠ ⮣,    ।.    ॡ,   ⪮ 﫠  䠪   ਭ ३᪮ ન: < ।,   ᯮ>.[p80]

   ।᪠ 饣  ந⥫⢮     易⥫ ᫮ 릨. 祫ﬨ  ⮢  殮  栬,  ᥬ ᭮  ᮡ ஦ ᥭ.  㥬  ᮧ 㯭 ࠦ᪨ ꥪ  ।饭   ᥫ᪮ ⭮  ᯥ祭   த.  砥  ,  ⤠  ⮣  祢     饬.    饥,   祣.

    ।⠢  ਢ⭮ ᭮ ९⥭   饣.   ७    ᠫ ᢮  <ࠢ  ਢ⭮>,   ⮩ 뫮  ﭨ ਢ⭮  ⮭  1890 ,  ⥭樠 ஧ ਢ⭮  饬.   1947  द  ᠫ ᢮ ஬  讬 ,    ﭨ ਢ⭮  ᫥ ⠭  ᨨ,  ,   ந  ࠦ᪨ ᢮  -   饬, ᪠,  1984 .   ⨭   । ᮬ  1968 ,   ⨪ ⢮   ६  ।⭮ ਨ  ࠪ⨪,    쥧 ।० ⭮ᨫ  ⮬,  ࠤ  饥, ᫨ ।⭠   㤥 ⠢  .

  ⮬,       ᠭ   ਢ⭮  XXI .  ࢮ砫쭮 ⠯  訫    । 100-⭥ ਮ,  2048. 筮  뫠 , ᪠ द ,   ⠪    襬   饥.  ᠬ ⨥ <ਢ⭮> 易  ⢮ ᮢ, ,  㬠, 易⥫쭮  襭  2048 .   ஡  ਢ⭮  १⮬ ᯮ짮 孮,    饭 ⭮⥫쭮 ਢ⭮  ᢮ 筮,  ⭨ .  㡥,   । XXI   饭 ⠭ ᮢᥬ . ⢮  殬   ⮫  ஡ ᮫⭮ 䨪樨, ⠭樮 뢠, ᫥,  ਨ  ஧  ஭ ⢥ ⥫. ᫨  2048  祫⢮   㭨⮦ ᥡ 窥-㬠襤襬   ᢥ堪⨢ 楩᪨ ᨫ, ᪠  ᥡ,   멤   ஢,    릨  ᫥騥 祫.

 祬   ࠡ⠫   <2048>, ⥬   ⠭,    ᥣ    - 襥 ᪮ ⢮ 饣.  졠  ந室 ,  砫 XXI ⮫. ⢥ ᯮᮡ ८ , ⤥騩    ⮯᪮ 饣, 砥  ⮬, ⮡  ਭ ࠢ 襭 㦥 ᥣ.

ਢ⭮ ⢨⥫쭮 室  .  ᥣ 祭  ।⠢ ,  ஬   㤥  ஢ ᨬ, ,    ⢨ ᫥,   ᥪ ⠭ 묨  ⮬  롮 ࠭祭.  , ᠭ ண   ᢮ .  ,  ஬    .  ⢥ ᯮᮡ,   ண  ᬮ  ⠪ ⮯筮 饣, 砥  ⮬, ⮡ 㦥 ᥣ  ந 㣮 饥.

 ᮧ 樨       諥,     ⢮.   ந ᢮ ⢮, ஥ 㢠 ᨬ  䨤樠쭮 筮.     אַ ᥩ.







 



१  ᫥ ⮣    㢨 ᢥ, ਢ⭮ ⠫   祢 ᮢ,  ⥫  ⮢. ࠢ⥫⢥ ⥫  ᬥ ⥯ ᮧ,  吝 ⮢  ஫  ᢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥    䠪஬, ᤥন騬 ࠧ⨥ ஭ 樨.  ࠭  饭 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨 ⠫    ஡  ⭮襭  묨 ⠬  .  祭 ⮣   稫 ⭨ ஭ ᥬ  ,  ਢ⭮ ࠤ  १ ⢨ .
設⢮  ᥬ 諮  , ⠢ ⢠ <ࠦ 筮>, ᠭ   2. 業 祭 ࠧ,  ᮣ᭮   2000  ॣ஢  500  750  ࠧ 砥 ࠦ 筮. ࠦ 筮 ⠫ ⮫쪮 ࠭ 㯫,   砨   ਢ  :    ஬騥 ⨬ 蠩 - 㯯 㯭, 騥 ,  樠쭮 客  । ਨ ६ ⪮  . 㯯 襭 뫨 㦥  ࠢ 樠쭮 客, ࠧ  ࠡ  ᮭ 騩        樮 ⥫䮭 . ਬ, ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠ ।  ன 蠩 㯭,  ࠦ 筮,   18 楢 1200 祫  ⨢  2  ஢. ଠ <室> ।⢥  ஢ ᯮ  ᮭ,  ,  Aegis Communication,  ன ࠡ⠫   童 蠩. Aegis[p81] ࠡ뢠 ଠ  짮⥫ ⥬ ।  American Express;  饭,  ଠ ᯮ짮  祭  祪 樠쭮 客, ᢨ⥫  ஦, ⥫᪨ ࠢ    ⮢.[249]

஭ 쬮 㣮 த  稫  騭, 襩  ୮   砢襩 ࢭ,    砫 ᪠ 砭   ,     .  筮   㦨,    ᯠ쭥 ⠭  . 騭 ⨫   ,  ⠬  ᪠,    蠥   ࠭祭 訢 ன, ᪮  ᠥ  㪮뢠饩 .  ᮢ⮢    .




⠪  ਢ⭮ த


  殮   ਢ⭮.    1999    諠  , ४ ୥-⢮ Doubleclick  ࠧ 稫  ᫨ﭨ  饩 થ⨭묨 ᫥ﬨ ମ Abacus Direct. Doubleclick ஢ ᪮஢ ᢮ ᮡ⢥    ।⥭ 짮⥫ ୥,- 祭 ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ⨪ 饭  ॣ樮  web-ࢥ஢,-    Abacus, ᮤঠ饩 ,   ᪨ ᢥ  ॡ⥫. 饭  ⮬ 맢  ⮢  ஭ ⮢  㯯   ਢ⭮,  ,   Doubleclick १ 㢥稢  ௮権  ࠢ୮ ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨, ᪮ ।⠢塞 Doubleclick 㣠   web-ᠩ  ,    ⥫䮭 ࠪ᪨  祫, 襤襣  web-ᠩ  ᬮॢ襣  ४.

 ⠫ ᢨ⥫ﬨ ⮣,  ᫥ 訡,   ᭮,  ०  ⢠ ॢ⨫ ࠤ㦭 ᯥ⨢ ୥  ଠ樮 ,  ஬ ࠪ᪨  뢠   㢠 ਢ⭮ 筮. ᬮਬ ᫥騥 䠪.

⠭  ᠬ ୮ ᭮   [Richard Smith], ᭮⥫  訩 १ Phar Lap Software, ॢ⨫  web-ᠩ⮢,  ਢ⭮,    譥 .  ᯥ樠   , ᯮ㥬  ᮧ web-࠭,  楫 宦 , ।饣 ଠ  ࠧ묨 ࣠ﬨ. ਬ,   2000   㦨,  web-ᠩ Intuit  ஦ ᪠ । ४⥫ ଠ樨,  짮⥫ﬨ  ࠭ 䨭ᮢ .[250]  窠  ४⥫  㧭,  짮⥫    ।  㬬 30  ஢  ਮ⥭ 設  500  ஢  ਮ⥭ . Intuit ,  窠  뫠 砩  ࠢ 訡 ࠧ ,  ⮫쪮  뫠 㦥.

ᬮ      襭 ஭   ᠬ묨 ࠭묨 । 짮⥫ ୥, , ᮡ騥  ஭ ,   . ਬ,   2000  ணࠬ 訡 ਢ  ⮬,  Trans World Airlines ࠧᨫ ஭  80% 稪 ᢮ ᯨ᪠ 뫪 Dot Com Deals.  ᥭ 2000   DigitaliConvergence ⮫㫠  ஡  ᭮, ਢ襩  ⮬,  뫨 ࠧ襭   ஭   ⮢, ⠭ ᪠  ᪠ -  ॣ஢ த.  ,  ਭ ந襤襥  ᥩ 쥧: < ᮦ  稭 㤮⢠.  ࠭ ஡  ਭ﫨 ⥫  ।஦     ஡  쭥襬>,- ᪠ 孨᪨ ४ DigitahConvergence   [Doug Davis]  饭  -५.[251]  ᫨  ⢨⥫쭮 ਭ  ஧ 쥧,    ।    ६    ஢ ᢮ ⥬  ।饭  ஡.

  த ⠫   ⮢묨 ஭ﬨ      ।묨 ⠬.  ﭢ 2000  堪  ᥢ  易    CD Universe, ,  ⨫ 350    ஢ ।   web-ᠩ .  ᨫ 100  ஢   ଠ樨   ⢥ত 쥧 ᢮ ᫮ 㡫 ᪮쪮    ஢  ୥.[252]   砫 ,  १  ⥫.   2000   web-ᠩ ஧筮 ࣮ Salesgate.com 뫮 饭  20  ᥩ  ,   ।    ᮭ ଠ.[253]  ᥭ 2000  Western Union ᮮ騫  饭   ᠩ ஡ ଠ樨  ।  15700 ⮢.

, ⢮ ୥- Toysmart.com ,  ⠪ 뢠 <஢쭠> ⨪  ਢ⭮     .    ६,  Toysmart.com 뫠 梥饩 ମ,  ਮ५ 㢠  ⮢, ,    த ᯨ᮪ ᢮ ⮢ -  ᭮, 祭   த⥫ ⭨ ⥩.    諮  樮, Toysmart ,   த ⠢   ⢮,     ⠬.[254]  ।  ਮ⥭ ᯨ᪠ 㯨  Disney -   㯭 ஢ Toysmart.  ᫥ ⮣  ࠫ쭠   ࣮ 砫 ᫥, Toysmart 稫  頫,  த ᯨ᮪ ᢮ ⮢ ⮫쪮 ⮩ ,  ᮣ ᫥ ࢮ砫쭮 ⨪ Toysmart - 쪨  殢  ਢ⭮.




  ⢥?


ࠧ  ਢ⭮ த, ᪮ ਪ᪨   ࠢ⥫⢥ 㣨 뢠 墠 ଠ 㪮  ᮢ⮢ ᯥ⮢  ⮤ ᯥ祭 饣 ஢  ਢ⭮.    㣨 ࠭. ਬ, ᫥ ⮣  㡫筠 ⥪ 㢥 (⠭᪠ 㬡) ⠭   30    ।饭 饭  , ᯥ樠 㯮祭  ᠬ ਢ⭮ ⠭᪮ 㬡 ஢ ᯥ . ᫥  ।⠢ ,  ஬ ,      , ⮡  믮 ᢮ ।祭  ।饭 ࠦ  ६   ਢ⭮ 筮.[255] ,  ⫨稥  , ய  ,  ⠬  ⠥  ⥫ ⮢, ⠭  ⠭ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮, ⠪   ॣ㫨஢  ᮢ ,    ஢   ࠢ⥫⢥ ०  ᠬ ᮧ ਥ ⨪  ਢ⭮.

筮, ࠢ⥫⢮  த ⠨  ⮬,   室  ᮧ ⥫ ⮢, ஭ ॣ  ਢ⭮ 筮, ᪮  筮 ஢쭮 ⠭ ⨪, ᬮ   䠪,  ࠫ쭠   ࣮ 뢠    ⫮ 室 ਭ  ⥫ ⮢   ਢ⭮.[256]

 ⮣ ⮡ ᮯ⨢ ਭ ⥫ ⮢   ਢ⭮,    䮪஢  ࠧࠡ⪥  ࠢ  ⮤  ᮡ ਢ⭮,  뫨  ਥ   ୥, ⠪   筮 .  ⮤  뢠  ४⨢   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨 [European Union's Directive on Personal Information], ⠪  饭   1980  㪮⢮  ஫  ⮩ ਢ⭮  ६饭 १ 㤠⢥ ࠭ ᮭ . ( - 㭠த ࣠  ᪮ 㤭  ࠧ, ꥤ 29 ࠭-童   㦤, ࠧ⨥  ࠡ⠬  襭 ᪮  樠쭮 ⨪.)   殢, ਪ᪨     ய,    㣨 ࠭, 㦥  ᮮ⢥騥    ਢ⭮, 騥   ਭ樯.   楬,  ,  ⥫    ਢ⭮   ਥ ॣࠤ  .




  MetroCard

१  ᫥ ⮣,   砫 ᢮ < >[p82]  ⮩ ,  -થ 﫮  ࠤ ९ < ਪ>  ன [Larry Freund]. ன ।  㡫  New York Post , 뢠,   -ઠ 砥     ஢ ⥬ ய⥭. 宦,   ய⥭ [Metropolitan Transit Authority, ] ணࠬ஢    ६    ᯮ짮  祪 MetroCard  த.  蠫  ⮩    﫠  ࠪ⨪    室 १ ୨  ঠ  :    ࠢ ய⥭,   砫 ஡ ᯥ,  㪠  ⠭権 ,  뫠 ᯮ짮 窠 ঠ.

᭮   Post,  㦥 ⭮ 짮 ⮩   ஢থ .    砥 祫  ঠ  ७  ᮢ襭 ࠦ  . ॢ ,    ⥩⥭    㯫, , ᮣ᭮  ,  MetroCard 뫠 ᯮ짮 १   ᫥ ᮢ襭 㯫  ⠭樨 , 室饩 冷  .    Post ᪠뢠   ᪮쪨 ,  ⥬ ஢࣫ ,    砥,   뫮  ( ⠢  ᪠ 㣮 ॢ).

 襥 ᯮ⢮ 뢠 ,    Post 뫠 ᠭ ᮢ襭 ᯮ ⮭,  ⥭ ⨪.   ய⥭ ஢ ७  ⥬ MetroCard,  祣  ਫ ࠦ -ઠ  ⮬,  ⠭ ப⠡ ⥬ ᫥,  㤥    ६饭.    ᮢ  ,     ⮩  : ⮫쪮     ⥪⨢, ஬ ⨫ ?  ᫨ 㦠騩   ᫥ ६饭 ᢮ 㣨, ⮡ 㧭,      ஭,  ⠭ , 室     襣 ⥫?   - ।⢠ 㦥 ᠭ樮஢ ᬮ ?  筮,    業஢   ⮬,  ⥬   ᠬ  ᫥  ।   ⥬ ய⥭,-  ᫥ । 祪.

⮡ ᭨ ,    .   ४   襭  ᠬ:    ।⠢  쬥  樨, ।饩,        ଠ樥  ⥬ MetroCard, ᪮ ⮩ 樨  ⢮. ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠   ।⠢  浪 ;   ଠ  ஫   ࠦ᪨ ࠢ, ।饣 冷 ।⠢ 樨 ଠ樨    ଠ樨. 㦠騬  ࠧ蠥 ᬠਢ    ,   ਭ    ।饭 ᬮ.  㣮 ஭,  ᮧ ⥬,  ன      ᢮ ଠ樨:  諨   ᢮ 窨 MetroCard, ᪠ ,   諥  ᯥ  ⠭権,    뫨.  㬠,  ᮬ  ⢥ 頥   ⥪⨢  ॢ 㣠: ,  㦭 ᤥ,     -       㯭  .




  ࠭


   ᫥ 室  ᢥ ⮩  ࠢ⥫⢮  ਭ﫮 ᥮ꥬ騩  ,  ࠢ ࠦ  ਢ⭮.  C-6   ⠪   <   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ஭ 㬥> [Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act],  ⥫  ⠭  ࠢ,  ᪨  易 믮  ᡮ  ࠡ⪥ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.  饥 ६  ࠭ ⮫쪮  ᪨ , 室騥  䥤ࠫ ॣ㫨஢, ⠪    客 ,  १   ⢨  㤥 ࠭ ⠪   , ॣ㫨஢ ⥫쭮  室   ஢権.[257]

 ᫥   ᥣ  뫮 㤥 ᠬ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮  ୥.  ᪨  ᠥ ᥩ ⥫쭮  ᡮ ଠ樨, ᨬ  ⮣,    .  ⠪   , ᪠ 童 ᪮ ૠ   [John Cannis],   ஢ . 㯠 ⮩ ᭮ ।⢥ । ਭ⨥ , , 騩 ⠪ ૠ᪨ ᥪ६  ஬諥, ᪠:

 ⮣ ⮡  ᬮ  ஬  ⥫㠫쭮   ஭ 樨, ॡ⥫  ᬥ  ᯮ ⢮ ᥡ  묨 孮ﬨ  ﭨ, ஥  孮  뢠   .   ,   ᤥ 䨤樠  ,   ࠢ  䨭ᮢ 奬 প ᤥ   ଠ樮  ࠡ⠥.[258]

 ᮧ ᫮,    ᪨   ਤন  ࠢ  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,  :

 אַ થ⨭, IT-, ⥫㭨樮 ,  -  ,   室     ਢ⭮.   ⠪,  ,  䥪⨢ ⥫⢮  ॡ⥫ ३  ஭ ᯮᮡ    㤥    , 祬 ᠬ⥫쭮 ᮧ ࠢ.[259]

  ᭮ C-6 ਭ樯   쭮 ⠭ ਢ⭮   < ࠢ   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨> [Code for the Protection of Personal Information],  ᪠ 樠 ⠭⮢ [Canadian Standards Association, CSA] ਭ﫠  ᥭ 1995 .  ࠢ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ CSA [CSA Privacy Code] ⠫  ࣠権 蠣 樥   ਢ⭮ 筮.  蠣 ,   ।, । 楫 ᡮ ଠ樨, 祭 ࠧ襭  , ࠭祭 ᡮ, ᯥ祭 筮  ਭ⨥   ⨢ 砩 ࠧ襭 (. ⪮   蠣  ࠬ).




⪮  ᪨ ਭ樯


 < ࠢ   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨>, 饭 ᪮ 樠樥 ⠭⮢,    ᨬ ਭ樯.[260]

1.⭮. ࣠  ⢥⢥  室    ᮭ ଠ      ᪮쪨 㤭, ⢥  믮 ࣠樥  ਭ樯.

2.। 楫. ,  묨 ⢫ ᡮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,   ।  砫 ᡮ ଠ樨.

3.襭. ନ஢ 祫  祭 ࠧ襭    易⥫묨  ᡮ, ᯮ짮   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,  ᪫祭 砥,   .

4.࠭祭 ᡮ.  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨   ࠭祭  ᮮ⢥⢨  楫ﬨ ᡮ, ।묨 ࣠樥. ଠ  ᮡ 묨  묨 ⮤.

5.࠭祭  ᯮ짮, ⨥  ࠭. ᮭ쭠 ଠ   ᯮ짮  뢠  楫, ⫨  ,    ᮡ࠭, ஬   ࠧ襭 祫   裡  ॡﬨ . ᮭ쭠 ଠ   ࠭ , 祬  室  ⨦  楫.

6.筮. ᮭ쭠 ଠ   ⮫쪮 筮,   㠫쭮, ᪮쪮  室  楫  ᯮ짮.

7. ᭮. ᮭ쭠 ଠ   饭    ᭮, ஢  ᮮ⢥ ஢  䨤樠쭮.

8.. ࣠  ।⠢  ᢮   ଠ樨  ਭ⮩   ⨪  ⮤ ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

9.ᯥ祭 㯠.  ,  祫   நନ஢  ⢮, ᯮ짮  ⨨ ᢮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨,     ।⠢   .     ᯮ 筮   ଠ樨,  ⠪  ᮮ⢥騥 ࠢ.

10.ࠡ⪠ .  祫    ࠢ ⢥⢥ 㤭 ( 㤭) ࣠樨   䠪 믮  ਭ樯.

 ࠢ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ CSA   宦    ⠭ ⢠ ISO 9001 㭠த ࣠樨  ⠭⨧樨, ⠢訩 祭  ।   .    ISO 9001, ⠭ ਢ⭮ CSA  ஢. ᪨ ,   ᫥ ॡ ⠭ CSA,  ᯮ짮   ᮢ襭⢮ 㦡  ࠡ  ⠬  ७ ᮢ.   ⠪  ਭ樯 ⭮襭  ⢥. (⪨   1997   ਭ  ⠭ ਢ⭮ ISO ௥ 㤠;  ⥫쭮  ⥫쭮 ⥯ ஢ 묨 ⠬.)

C-6  䥪⨢ ८ࠧ ᢮ ࠢ   .  < ௮⨢ ࠦ>,  ᫥ ⨬ ਭ樯  1995 ,    묨,  ᯥ樠 㯮祭  ᠬ ଠ樨  ਢ⭮ ஢樨 ਮ   [Ann Cavoukian].  ᫮ , <訥 ௮⨢ ࠦ> 㦥  ਢ⭮ ᢮ ⮢.  ,  祣  ,   ஬ ꥬ ࠡ  砫쭮 ⠯:   ।    㬠 ᭮ 楫 ᡮ ,  ⥬  ࠧ襭 ᢮ ⮢  ᯮ짮 ⮩ ଠ樨  㣨 楫.[261]

 ⢨ C-6  冷 ࠦ  㤥 ⥫. C-6 㦨 ࠢ 蠭ᮢ ᪨ , ⠢   筮  ,     ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥 ᢮ ⮢. , 騥 ᮮ⢥騥 ⨪  楤,   ᬮ  ⢥ ,  ⠢  ⥭.

諮 ६   㬠 筮 ⥫⢮.    ⨪ ᯥ祭 ਢ⭮ ⮢ ࠪ᪨ 楫 ᭮뢠  ᠬॣ㫨஢.   室 ࠡ⠥, ⮫쪮 ᫨ <  㡫筮  易⥫⢮>  ਢ⭮,  .  १  ࠭ ᢮ ࠭   ,  : <   ⮣>.




   㪠


    ࠢ⥫⢮  ⮢   楫⭮ ஥   ਢ⭮ ᢮ ࠦ.  祢     ᭥, 稭  魮 ⢨   ⨪  稢 ⢨ ᮡ⨩,  ⠢  ⢥ ᯫ.  ⮫ 뢠 襭  ய  ᠬ ਢ⭮  㯫ﬨ ⫥,  ᯮ짮 ᮭ ଠ  ᪠, 樨  㭨⮦ ॥, ࠫ  ᪨ ࠣ.  ,   ⠫  .

 ஥ ⢥ .  ⮬ ࠫ쭠   ࣮ 㡫 ,  ஬   ⮬,   ਢ⭮ ॡ⥫   ᠬ⥫쭮 ᮧ ਥ ⨪  ࠢ  ࠡᯮᮡ     ⠫ ६ ਭ ஭ ⥫   ⮩ ஡.  ந諮   ६,   ᥭ   ᠬ 樨, 㪨  ࠭ᯮ ।  ,  楫  ,   뫨 ⠭ ࠧ ஢  ਢ⭮  ୥. , ।騩  ᯥ ਢ⭮  ୥, ᪮॥ ᥣ, 㤥 ਭ  襥 ६.

      :      ॠ쭮 .   ⢥  ࠧ蠥. ᥯஭騥 孮   ࠤ樮 ⫨    䫠 ࠬ,   ஭  ஢ ந室  ஬ ᪮.  , ⮡ ࠢ⥫⢮  ਭ﫮 樮    ଠ樨,  頫   ᮭ ଠ   ୥, ⠪   .   ⢨ ⠪   ,  ࠩ ,   ஡  ਢ⭮.

 ⮫쪮  稭,  ன    쥧   祭 ஡ ਢ⭮.  稭, 筮,  ⢥.   ந室     砥 ࠦ 筮,  ⢥     ,   ᥮墠 ⠭     ,   㡮 ஭騬 ⠭ ਭ ⭮ -ᮮ⢠.  ⥯ ⢥ 稭 : <!>  ᫨  ⨬  ⢥  襣 ⢠  襬,   ᤥ ⠪, ⮡   뫨 蠭:   ॡ ᯥ祭 襩 ਢ⭮,    ॡ  אַ ᥩ.





  



 ᫥ ࣠樨,      襭 ஡  ਢ⭮    ᤥ   蠭.




   ᠬ <ࠦ 筮> ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮ [Federal Trade Commission's Identity Theft Hotline]


 1992 no 1997     ⥭ᨢ ࠦ 筮 ᫠  16 ࠧ.  襤襥 ६  ⮣  㯫 ᪮稫  .   2000  뢠  700   ࠦ 筮. 襤訬 ⮬ Trans Union ᮮ騫,   砥  3       ࠦ 筮. ᭮ ண ⥫쭮 ६ 饣 ᠬ  ਢ⭮  ⨭,  訥   ஡ ࠦ 筮 ⮫  ⢥ ᥬ.   ਧ  । 䥤ࠫ쭮 ⥫쭮 ,    ⢥   ୨ ஡:  ,  ன   騥 ।묨 ⠬  뤠 ।  䨪樨 筮,    ⢮,     ࠢ 訡  騥  㦤  ⢠, 騬 ᡮ஬ ।⭮ ଠ樨.

 ࠫ쭠   ࣮ ᮧ    ᠬ ࠦ 筮,  ᮡࠥ ⨪  ⮩ ஡  ࠥ  ॡ⥫. ᫨  ⠫ ⢮ ࠦ 筮, ,   ⮩ 祩 .

Federal Trade Commission's Identity Theft Hotline

Identity Theft Clearinghouse

Federal Trade Commission

600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20580

Voice: 877-IDTHEFT (438-4338)

TDD: 202-326-2502

http://www.consumer.gov/idtheft




ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮ [Electronic Privacy Information Center, EPIC]


 1991   ⥭ [Marc Rothenberg]  ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮ ࠡ  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡, ⮡  ਢ⭮ 樨  ஢ .  ᢨ⥫ । ᫥묨 ⠬  ﬨ  饩 ஧ 襩 ਢ⭮;  ᯥ譮 㤨   ⠢ 䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢮ । ᭮  㬥⮢, 뢠  ⥫⢠  ਢ⭮  ਪ楢;  ᯥ譮 ࣠ 樨  ॡ⥫ ⨢  த Lexis/Nexis  Intel. EPIC  ஭ ଠ樮 ⥭  ন web-ᠩ, 騩 ⨭  ଠ樨  ᠬ ਢ⭮.

The Electronic Privacy Information center

1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 200

Washington, DC 20009

Voice: 202-483-1140

Fax: 202-483-1248

E-mail: info@ecip.org

http://www.epic.org




  ଠ樥  ࠢ  ਢ⭮ [Privacy Rights Clearinghouse]


ᯮ騩  ୨  塞   [Beth Givens] Privacy Rights Clearinghouse  訬 ⢮ ଠ樨  ॡ⥫, ⮫  襭 ਢ⭮.   㭪樮  ,  ன ᥣ ⮢  ⢥    ⠪ ⥬,  ⥫⢠  ࠡ祬 , ᫥, ᪠ ଠ  । . Privacy Rights Clearinghouse  ⠪ 묨 ᠬ   ࠦ 筮.

The Privacy Rights Clearinghouse

1717 Kettner Ave. Suite 105

San Diego, CA 92101

Voice: 619-298-3396

Fax: 619-298-5681

E-mail: prc@privacyrights.org

http://www.privacyrights.org




 ஭ ஭ [Electronic Frontier Foundation, EFF]


 ஭ ஭ 砫쭮  ᭮   ࠧ 䮭   ࠦ᪨ ࠢ 堪஢.   ᫥ ᢮ ᭮ ࣠ ।稫   楫: ࠭ ᢮ ᫮   ,  ஢ ਢ⭮  ᯥ祭 ⮣,   孮 ᮧ  ⮬ <㢠 祫᪨ ࠢ, ⠪  ᢮ ᫮, ਢ⭮  ࠢ ᯮ짮>. EFF - 童᪠ ࣠,  ६   ⢥, ⠪    ⢥ ⨪.

Electronic Frontier Foundation

1550 Bryant Street, Suite 725

San Francisco CA 94103

Phone: 415-436-9333

Fax: 415-436-9993

E-mail: info@eff.org

http://www.eff.org





஢ ᯨ᮪ ᯮ짮 筨


Annas, George J. Standard of Care: Laws of American Bioethics. London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

ᠭ 騬 ᯥ樠⮬  ⨪, Standard of Care ᫥ ⢨ 樭, ⢠   ⥬ 祭  楤⮢   ⨪, 稢 㤥 ࠧ⥫⢮. ᢥ饭  ⮩    , , ⠭, ࠭ᯫ ࣠  ᪨ ᫥.

Bertillion, Alphonse ( 㦡 㤥 䨪樨 [Judical Identification Service] ࠭樨). Signaletic Instructions, Including the Theory and Practice of Anthropometrical Identification. ॢ  ᫥ ࠭᪮   132 㭪, ﬨ  ⠡栬.  ।樥  . .  [Major R. W. McClaughry],  諮  樨 . Chicago: The Werner Company, 1896.

 ⮩  ᠭ ⥬ 䨪樨 ⨫쮭, ࢮ ᪮ ⥬ 䨪樨, ࠧࠡ⠭  ७   ६.

Brin, David. Earth. New York: Bantam, 1990.

ਭ 뢠 饥 ,  ஬   ਢ⭮.  室  ﭨ ᪮ ਧ  ਧ 㦠饩 ।. ⢨ ந室  । XXI ,   ⠭ ,  ଠ    㯭 १ ଠ樮 ,  㪠 ᯮ ᠬ ࠧ 㡭 孮. ॢ室 ⨢,  ᠭ 孮   ᮢᥬ 㡥⥫쭮.

Brin, David. The Transparent Society. Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1998.

 ⮣ ⮡ 楯   , ਭ ⢥ত,    䮪஢      ਢ⭮  ࠭  ஫쭮.   ஧ 襩 ᢮, ।० ਭ, 砥  ⮬,  孮  ᯮ짮  ᮢ,  祭 ࠭祭 㣮 .

Burnham, David. The Rise of the Computer State: A Chilling Account of the Computer's Threat to Society. New York: Random House, 1983.

 堬 ⠫ ᪮   ਢ⭮  ୮ ᭮ 1980-.    ᪠뢠  饩 ஧  㦡 ᫥, । , 㦡 ⡮ ७஢  ᫥  ࠡ⭨. 砫쭮,  設⢮ ஡,  堬  , ⠫  ॥,  ⮪ ਤ᪮ ,  ஬  ᮦ, ⠫   訩 । ⢥ ன.

Calvin, William H. Conversations with Neil's Brain: The Neural Nature of Thought and Language. Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1994.

 ⮩  ஡ 뢠 ᮢ६ ஢ ࠧ ஡  ஠⮬,   ᤥ  訢 .

Cavoukian, Ann, and Don Tapscott. Who Knows? Safeguarding Your Privacy in a Networked World. Toronto: Random House of Canada, 1995.

ᠭ   ᯥ樠 㯮祭    ,    ४ ᮡ   ଠ樨    .

Cranor, Carl R, ed. Are Genes Us? The Social Consequences ot the New Genetics. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994.

४ 祡  ⨪,  ᯥ樠쭮   孮 ᪮ 䨪樨.

Crevier, Daniel. AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York: Basic Books, 1993.

뢠  ⢥ ⥫,  ன ᮡ  㤥   ᫥饬 ᯠ  ᫥ ⢥ ⥫  1980-.

Cummins, Harold, and Charles Midlo. Finger Prints, Palms and Soles: An Introduction to the Dermatoglyphics. Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company, 1943.

祡 ᮡ  ⯥⪠ 楢, ᠭ  । XX . ᮡ  뢠  ⯥⪮ 楢  㦤  ᪮ ⠢饩, 祭   ⮣,  뫠 ᮧ ᪠ த ᫥⢥.

Cushman, Robert E. Civil Liberties in the United States: A Guide to Current Problems and Experience. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956.

᫥ ᮢ६ ஡ ࠦ᪨ ᢮   , 㤥 ᮡ  ᮢ   ਬ樨,  ⠢  ⮬ ஡ ਢ⭮.

Eaton, Joseph W. Card-Carrying Americans: Privacy, Security, and the National ID Card Debate. Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 1986.

⮭ ⢥ত,     ਭ 樮 ⥬ 䨪樮 , ⮡ ᪫    ᯥ ஫쭮 ,     .   ᮤঠ  ଠ   .  祣 ⮭  祫, ⠪  ப ७ ଠ樮 ⥩, ᮡ ஢ ⥩ । ,   ⠪  㦭묨.

Etzioni, Amitai. The Limits of Privacy. New York: Basic Books, 1999.

 ⮩ ᯮ୮  樮 ⢥ত,     ⮪,  २⮪ ਢ⭮. ᫨    ஢  , ॥ ᥪ㠫 㯭, ਯ⮣䨨  䨪樮 , 樮 ⢥ত,  ࠢ ⢠  䠪  ᢮ 童 ॢ訢 ࠢ ⤥ 筮⥩  ਢ⭮. ᭮,  ⢥ ,  ன,   樮, ਢ⭮ 筠 -  樭᪠ ଠ.  ,  樮, ஧ 室   讣 ,   讣 .

Finn, James, and Leonard R. Sussman, eds. Today's American: How Free? New York: Freedom House, 1986.

  ।⠢ ᮡ   ,  ஡ ᢮  ᮢ६ ⢥. ᮡ  㦨, ᠭ १⮬ Diebold Group   [John Diebold] ,  ﭨ ஢  ਢ⭮  ᢮.

Flaherty, David H. Privacy in Colonial New England. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1972.

 ⥧ ᪮ 樨  ᬠਢ ⮪ ᫥ ਪ栬 ਢ⭮ ⥬ ᫥ ﭨ ⮣   ⮭  㣨 த  .

Garson, Barbara. The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming the Office of the Future into the Factory of the Past. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.

  ᮭ 砥  ஢  । ⥫㭨樮 孮    ਪ楢  । 1980-.  ,   孮, ࠧࠡ⠭ 砫쭮  襭 ந⥫쭮 㤠,  ⠫ ।⢮ ᫥  ࠡ⭨,  ᫨ ⠪ ᫥ 뫮 䥪⨢   ਭᨫ ।. ᮭ ᮯ⠢ ਪ᪨   ய᪨,  ਭ ண , ࠭稢騥 ᫥  ⥬,    㦠騥  .

Givens, Beth and the Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, with Dale Fetherling. The Privacy Rights Handbook: How to take Control of Your Personal Information. New York: Avon Books, 1997.

  ᭮  ⥮ਨ  ࠪ⨪. ᯮ  ⢥ ਬ ଠ, 祭   , ⨢  祩   ࣠樨  ୨,  ,   ﬨ, 騬  ਢ⭮    ⨬ .  ࠧ   ⥩, ᢥ    ᨢ 樥;  ᮭ ;   ⥫㭨権; ਢ⭮  ࠡ;  ᭮  ⨢.

Lalonde, Peter, and Paul Lalonde. The Mark of the Beast: Your Money, Computers, and the End of the World. Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 1994.

   ⨭, ﭭ ஢  ⮬,  쭠   㬥 ⥫  ᯥ樠묨 ⪠  㪠   ਢ   ᢥ. ᬮ      ࣠ ᬥﭨ,  㬥  ᯮ ⨢ 쭮 ९.

Long, Senator Edward V. The Intruders: The Invasion of Privacy by Government and Industry, with a Foreword by Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey. New York: Praeger, 1966.

     ᥭ   襭 ਢ⭮.  ஡ ᪠뢠  饬 ६  ஭ ᫥  ஭ ࠢ⥫⢠    60-  XX . 祭 ஡ ᢥ饭 ⥬ ਭ . ᮡ ᥭ ᪠  ஢ 樥  ஫  த⠬  ⢠ 訢, ஥ ⢫﫮   ஭ ᫥  楫 祭 ⥫ ⨢ த殢 ७ 饢 ,   ࠢ, ஥ ᯮ짮 訢  ᪠ 뢠 室. ⥫ ⠪ ࠧ ⮣䨨 ࠧ 诨᪨ 訢 ன, ⠪    ஥ 䮭, ⮫, ५騩 ⨪  䮭  <讪>,   ᬮ஢  ᯨ < 騭>, ⮡   ⭮ .

Miller, Arthur R. The Assault on Privacy: Computers, Data Banks, and Dossiers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970.

४᭠  ᪨ ਣ  ᮡ⨩, ਢ  ਭ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>.

Murphy, Paul L. World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1979.

 ⢥ত,  । 砫 ࢮ ஢  襭 ࠦ᪨ ᢮ 뫨 筮 ࠭,     ⭮ ⥯ ਫ.   ६  뫮 ⮫쪮 襭 ࠦ᪨ ᢮   뫨 ⠪ ப ࠭,   ਢ    ਪ楢  ࠦ᪨ ᢮.

Orwell, George. 1984. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1949.

 줥  ᫥ 㡫樨   뫨,  ᮢ द  ᪠ ⮯  ⮫쪮  ਢ⭮, ᪮쪮  ⠫ਧ. 让  ࠢ ⢮  ᭮ ஫ 諮  ᥫ     饬.

᪨ ॢ  㯥  http://lib.rus.ec/b/76207(ਬ.⠢⥫ FB2)

Packard, Vance. The Naked Society. New York: David McKay Co., 1964.

 㬥⠫쭠 ࠡ ठ 饭 ਢ⭮  ᫥  1960-  XX .  ᬠਢ ⠪  ਢ⭮    ࠡ,  ஭ ࠢ⥫⢠  .  ᬠਢ ᪨  ᪨ 䠪, ਢ訥     ⠫쭮 ᫥,    ४樨  ⮬,    ᤥ.

Philips, John Aristotle, and David Michaelis. Mushroom: The Story of the A-bomb Kid. New York Morrow, 1978.

 ⥫   㤥⮬, 㦨訬,   ᮧ ஡  ⮢ ⮬ ,  ⮫쪮 饤㯭묨 筨.  ,  <拉 ᥪ> ࠧ  ᥪ, 祬 㬠 .

Ramberg, Bennett. Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril. Berkley: University of California Press, 1984.

 ,   ⮬  ᮢᥬ    拉묨 ᥪ⠬: ,   ⮣ 㦭,  㧮  ⪮   ⮬ ⠭.

Robin, Leonard. Money Troubles: Legal Strategies to Cope with Your Debts, 4th ed. Berkley: Nolo Press, 1996.

  㦤   ।      ४⭮ ଠ樥    । .

Rosenberg, Jerry M. The Death of Privacy. New York: Random House, 1969.

 ࣠ ᪠뢠  ﭨ ஭ ࠡ⪨   ਢ⭮ 筮   1960- .    , ਧ뢠  ਭ 묨 ⠬      ࠭     ୮  筮 ଠ樨  .

Rothfeder, Jeffrey. Privacy for Sale: How Computerization has Made Everyone's Private Life an Open Secret. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

 1990  ୠ  䥤, ࠡ  ୠ Business Week, 稫   ।⭮  -१   [Dan Quayle]. ᫥ 室  Business Week 䥤 ᠫ <ਢ⭮  த>,  ᮢ ਢ⭮,  ஬ ᮡ  㤥 騬 ᡮ஬ ଠ樨 ଠ ⠪ 뢠 <㯥>.   ⠫ ⭮ 筮   ⮬,    祭 ஡ ᠭ 筮  ୠ   [Dan Rather], ᠭ, ஥ 뫮 ⠢  㡫  ࠧ襭  .

Schwartz, Paul, and Joel Reidenberg. Data Protection law: A Study of United States Data Protection. Dayton: Michie, 1996.

࠭  ⥫⢠    ଠ樨  ࠭  饥 ६  ஬諥 ࠪ⨪.

Smith, H. Jeff. Hanging Privacy: Information Technology and Corporate America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.

   ࢠ᪮ 誮   ᫥ ⮣,  㯭 ௮樨  ࠡ뢠 ᮭ ଠ.  ,   騩 .

Smith, Robert E., and Eric Siegel. War Stories: Accounts of Persons Victimized by Invasions of Privacy. Available from Privacy Journal (P.O. Box 28577, Providence, RI 02908; 401-274-7861), 1994.

뢠  500 砥 襭 ਢ⭮,  ⮬ ᫥ 襭  । , 樭᪨ , ࠦ 筮, ஭ , ᯮ짮 ୥, ࠢ⥫⢥ ଠ, 稢 ।  ⥫䮭   㣮. 㡫 ।஬ Privacy Journal.

Smith, Robert E., and Eric Siegel. War Stories II. Available from Privacy Journal (P.O. Box 28577, Providence, RI 02908; 401-274-7861), 1997.

뢠 ⥫ 砨  Privacy Journal.

Stephenson, Neal. Snow Crash. New York: Bantam, 1992.

 ⨢ᮭ ७   砫 XXI ⮫,  騬 ࠬ, ᨬ묨 ࠬ,  窠 窠 㠫 㦥, ᥬ⭮ ⨧樥 ⨢ 孮  騬 訢  ஫ . <> ।᪠뢠   孮, 㦤  ⮩ ,   ⠭     ஬ ६  ,  ⠢騬 㬠.

᪨ ॢ  㯥  http://lib.rus.ec/b/54414(ਬ.⠢⥫ FB2)

Turkington, Richard , George . Trubow, Anita L. Allen. Privacy: Cases and Materials. Houston: The John Marshall Publishing Co., 1992.

쥧 祡 ᮡ  祭 ਨ  ᮢ६ ﭨ ⥫⢠   ਢ⭮   ୥, ⠪   .

Twain, Mark. Pudd'nhead Wilson: A Tale. London: Chatto & Windus, 1894.

    ਪ楢   ᯮ짮 ⯥⪮ 楢  䨪樨  ᫥ 㯫.

᪨ ॢ  㯥  http://lib.rus.ec/b/57097(ਬ.⠢⥫ FB2)

Wayner, Peter. Disappearing Cryptography. Boston:  Professional, 1996.

   砥 ⥣ - 孨 ᮪ ஢   㣨  ଠ樨, ⮡  ᠬ 䠪  ஢ . ⥣  易   ન஢  ᯥ祭 .

Westin, Alan R, Project Director, Michael A. Baker, Assistant Project Director. Databanks in a Free Society: Computers, Record-Keeping and Privacy. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972.

 ।⠢ १ ஢ National Research Council ᫥ ࠧ ஭     ﭨ  ਪ᪮ ⢮.  ᮤন ஡ ᪠  , ࠡ⠢  䥤ࠫ쭮 ࠢ⥫⢥, , ᪨ ࣠, 祡   㣨 ᪨ ࣠  1970-1971 . ⥫ 㤥 ᮡ ᭮ ᠭ ஢ ࠢ 樠쭮 客, 樮쭮 業 ଠ樨  㯭  [FBI's National Crime Information Center]; Bank of America; TRW's Credit Data Corporation; ࠢ ⮢묨 ᯨ᪠ R. L. Polk and Company; ᪮ 孮᪮   ମ᪮ ઢ.  ⠪ 頥 १ 饭 55 ।  ⥬, ᯮ   .  ண 騥 ࠢ ࠧ  孮  ᬠਢ ﭨ ஢  ⢥ ⨪.  ᮮࠦ ⭮ ᮢ⨬,  ⥬  ᠭ ⨭   ᮠࠬ ࣠ த 㭪樮஢  ᥣ,    㠫쭮   28  ᫥  㡫樨.

Wilson, Thomas R, and Paul L. Woodard. Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems: Technology and Policy issues. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 1987. Pub. No. NCJ-104342.

 , १騩 騩 ᯥ ⥬ AFIS, ⬥砥 砫 ப⠡ ਭ  ७ AFIS-孮   .




Web-ᠩ


騥 web-ᠩ   ⥫ ଠ  ᠬ, 㦤  ⮩ .

http://www.chessclub.com

 ࠭ 嬠⭮ 㡠 ୥.

http://lists.essential.org/cgi-bin/listproc_search.cgi?listname=med-privacy

娢  堭 ᪠  ஭ ᯨ᪥ 뫪 MED-PRIVACY, 饭 ᠬ 樭᪮ ਢ⭮.

http://members.aol.com/victcrdrpt/index.html

 ࠭ < ।⭮ ⭮>.  web-ᠩ 饭 , ࠤ訬  , ᮡ । ଠ. ন ଠ  <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>, ⮤ ४஢ । ⮢   ।⥫ ଠ  ⮤ .

http://www.american-adoption-cong.org

 ࠭ American Adoption Congress.

http://www.atcc.org

 ࠭ American Type Culture Collectio n.

http://www.ball.com/aerospace/index.html

 ࠭ Ball Aerospace, ந饩 ⭨-⥫ QuickBird.   ஡ ଠ樨  ⭨ .: http://www.ball.com/aerospace/qbird.html.

http://www.consumer.gov/idtheft

 ࠭ 祩   ᠬ ࠦ 筮 ࠫ쭮 ᨨ  ࣮.

http://www.eds.dofn.de

 ࠭ Earth Observation Data Services. ন  ࠭   祬 21 000 㯭  㧪 ⭨ ࠦ.

http://www.epic.org

 ࠭ ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮.

http://www.eff.org

 ࠭  ஭ ஭.

http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize-bkup.html

 ࠭ ஥ <ਧ >,  ⠭ ࢮ ,  ⢥    ⫨稬  祫᪮.

http://www.nationalcpr.org

 ࠭ 樮쭮 樨 ࠢ 樥⮢, ᪮ ࣠樨, ⨢襩 ᥡ ,  樥  ࠢ  ਢ⭮,      㣮 ᯥ樠   ࠢ࠭. ࣠ ⠥,   ࠡ⮤⥫,  客騪,  ࠢ⥫⢥ ⢠,  樨        ࠢ.

http://www.ncfa-usa.org

 ࠭ 樮쭮 ᮢ  뭮.

  ᪮ ࣠樥, ।⠢饩 ଠ  ७  㭠த 뭮, ন饩 ࠧ⨥ ⥫⢠   뭮  ।⠢饩 뫪  ⢠-童.

http://www.nci.org/nci/index.htm

 ࠭  拉୮ ஫. ᭮  1981 ,  ⠫ ᫥⥫᪨  ய᪨ 業஬  ।饭 ࠭ 拉୮ 㦨.  ᨬ ᪮ ࣠樥,  ࠥ ஫ ⭨  ᫮  ᭮ .

http://www.novaspace.com

 ࠭ NovaGraphics. த  < >  㣨, ⮢   ࠦ  ⭨ Landsat (800-727-NOVA).

http://www.privacyrights.org

 ࠭ Privacy Rights Clearinghouse.

http://spaceimage.com/index.htm

 ࠭ Space Imaging Corporation.

http://www.spot.com

 ࠭ Spot Imaging.

http://www.terraserver.com

 ࠭ TerraServer,  ன  ਮ  ⭨ ⮣䨨  ਪ᪮ ⭨ Landsat, ⠪  ⭨ SPIN-2 ᮢ᪨ ६. ࠦ   㯫  㦥  web-࠭;  ⠪  訥 ⮮᪨ Kodak. ⨢- 䥩 짮⥫ TerraServer   ।    㪠 , न  饫窮   ࠦ  .

http://www.the-dma.org

 ࠭ 樠樨 אַ થ⨭ .

http://www.worldsat.ca

 ࠭ WorldSat International, Inc, ந⥫ ᠬ ᫮   ஢  ⭨묨 ࠦﬨ,  ᮧ  ॡ 祭 ᫮  (800-387-8177).




୮


  樠쭮 ⮫  ᠬ ਢ⭮  1986 ,  蠫   㪥, 孮  ⢥ ⨪     [Dr. Gary Marx]  ᪮ 孮᪮ .   砥   뫠    <ᢥ ୮ 㤠⢠: 譠 ࠢ  ஧ ஢ > [David Burnham, The Rise of the Computer State: A Chilling Account of the Computer's Threat to Society]. ᬮ         ணࠬ⮬  ᥣ  㤮⢨ ࠡ⠫  設,    ⢮   ᯥ⮢,     ᯮ짮 ७.    뫨    ⠡  ஡,        ஫   ࠧ.
 1986   砫     [Peter G. Neumann] RISKS - , 饭 ᪠,  ⢮ ࣠  ஭   ᮯ ⥬  ୥. ஢ 魨  ᥣ  뫠   RISKS. ।  뫨 ਨ,     ⮬,   ᮢ 殮訥 訡  ७  ᯮ짮  ⥬.  祭       ﭭ 筨 ਠ,   ஦⥫쭮, 㬨   뫨 筨 孮. ᫥   饭     稫 蠭   筮,   ⠫ ﬨ.   ⮬  뢠   -,[p83]  ᬮ५ ᪮쪮  ⮩ 㪮    祭 業 ⠢ -   ਣ蠫      !

⨢  [Steve Ross]  䠪 ୠ⨪ 㬡᪮ 㭨 ९  ப  ⮬,     ,      . ⨢ ⠪ ᮢ⮢        .   㦭 뫮  ⥧  ⥬ <஧ ஢ 樠쭮 客>, ⨢ ⨫     ᯥ ஡  ਢ⭮ - ।, ᨬ 㦡  ⡮ ⥫. ⥬  稫 ,   த ਠ樨   ⮩  ਨ ᭮  ᭮  ⠢ ࠧ 㡫権 - 祭    ,  ࠡ뢠   ⥫⢮.

   [Robert Ellis] ਮ५   ⥩, ᭮   ⥧,  ⠫   Privacy Journal,   ⠭  㦥  25 .   稫 誮 ୠ⨪,  ᥣ  ࠤ ਮ ,   ᠫ  ⥬ ਢ⭮.         㯥 - ⥬ ⮬᪮ ᯮ ⯥⪮ 楢, ⥬ ᪮ 䨪樨, ஡ 樭᪮ ਢ⭮  <ண>  ࣮. ᪠   ଠ樮 ⥭,   < ਩>   ᫥   ஧ ਢ⭮ 室  ,   ஧ ਢ⭮.  ⠪ ᯮᮡ⢮ ࣠樨 Privacy Summit, 室饩    ⨢⮢ ਢ⭮.   <⠭樥>, 饩 ਢ⭮.
ਠ ઠ ⥭࣠ [Marc Rotenberg],   [David Banisar]    [David Sobel]  ଠ樮 業 ஭ ਢ⭮ 뫨  筨,  ண   ஢ ଠ,  ஧ ਢ⭮  ஭ ࠢ⥫  讣 . 뤢 EPIC  ᮮ⢥⢨  <  ᢮ ଠ樨>[p84] 㤥  ⨢   㣨 ࠢ⥫⢥ ࣠権   ᢥ ஬ ⢮ ଠ樨   ࠢ⥫⢠ ਭ ਢ⭮   ࠧ   : ९   樮쭮 ᭮. ,  ⭮,  㯭 ᯥ樠⮬   ⥮ਨ ਢ⭮,     ⥫⢠   ਢ⭮    ᠬ   設⮭ (,   ᪮쪮  ,   ᪫  ⨯ࠢ⥫⢥ ਠ᪨ ஥,    ஭ ࠢ).  ⠪ ⠫   <⥢  ਢ⭮>, ࠧ  ஡,    뫨  ᮣ.  ᥣ  㤠 㡥    訡.

   ᯨ࠭⮬  ਨ ⢥ ⥫ ᪮ 孮᪮ ,   稫  ⮬ .     ⠫ ஬  UCLA,  ᯥ樠  ஡ ਢ⭮. 㡫樨  㯫   孮, ९ ਢ⭮, 樠쭮 ⥮ਨ  ஫   業   ନ஢   㡥,   ⮩ .  ⠪ ᤥ 業 ᪨ 砭    , ⥬  .

 ⠭     ᯨ᮪ ,  묨  頫  ६ ࠡ  .  ᥣ 뫮 ᭮   ࠧ  室    ,   뫮 ⭮ ᬮ    .    ? 㤠   ?    ?

   ࠡ  ⮩   ᥤ  ᪮쪨 ﬨ .  ⢥砫   ,   ஭   ࠨ  ᢮ ⭮ ᯨᠭ ६, ⮡   .     让    १.     ᫨   - 吝 ய -,  ⥫  ࠧ ᮡ ୮:

 㪬 [Ami Bruckman], ࠧࠡ⠢襬 ⢥  MediaMoo  MooseCrossing  ਨ  ᪮ 孮᪮  [MIT Media Laboratory]  ࠡ饬   ਢ⭮ MIT [MIT Privacy Committee],

 堬 [Ram Avrahami],  ⠫ ࠧ  ਥ אַ થ⨭  நࠫ,

 द [John Burgess], 㦠饬 ⤥ ଠ樨 ᮫⢠   ,  㤥  ६  ᪠    ⠭,

ᮭ ⫨ [Jason Catlett], ᭮⥫ Junkbusters,

  [Dorothy Denning],  द᪮ 㭨 [Georgetown University], ᯥ樠   ஢,

  [Dan Ellis], ண    ᯨ࠭ ਨ ,   ᥣ ᮢ ஡ ਢ⭮,

 ᮭ [Carl Ellison], ࠮न୮ ਯ⮣, ࠡ饬  饥 ६  Intel,

 㬪 [Michael Froomkin],   ᠬ    ⮢   ୥-ࠢ,   饥 ६ ९  㭨   ਤ,

  [Robert Gellman], ᯥ-⨪  ᠬ ਢ⭮, 饬  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡,

  [John Gilmore], ᭮⥫ Electronic Frontier Foundation  饬 ⮪ ਯ⮣䨨,   祫,  㡥,  ᨫ쭠 ਯ⮣  襭  ஡ ਢ⭮,

  [Beth Givens], 㪮⥫ ஥ Privacy Rights Clearinghouse  ୨,

  [Janlori Goldman],   ஡ ਢ⭮, ࠡ  ACLU, EFF  CDT,

  [Lamont Granquist], ⢨⥫쭮 뤠饬 ୮ ᯥ樠, 饬  設⮭᪮ 㭨  ⫥,

 ࠭ [Michael Grant],  ண ,  祭  ஡ ਢ⭮   ᪠    ਩,

 ਪ [Evan Hendricks], ⥫ ଠ樮 ⥭ Privacy Times  設⮭, 䥤ࠫ  㬡,

ਪ  [Eric Hughes],   ⨭ ௠,  ᥣ 㡥 ,  ⮫쪮  ਯ⮣  ࠭ ᢮  ᨬ 筮,

 ஬ [James Kallstrom], 襬    -થ  㡥襬   ⮬,   ⢨⥫쭮   ࠦ᪨ ᢮,

⨢  [Steve Mann], ண    ᯨ࠭ ਨ     ⥬,  堦   ன  ,

  [Clifford M. Meyer],   㭨   ⢥ ⭮襭 設⮭᪮ 㭨,    ᭮  ⫥  ࣠ ⠬ 㯯  祭 孮  ⨨ [Technology and Democracy Study Group],

  [Jon Orwant],   ᯨ࠭ ਨ , த襬 㭤⠫   ஢ 짮⥫,  ⮣   ⠫ ⥫ ୠ,
ᥫ  [Damsel Plum], not de plume[p85] न 㡫権 Bastard Nation,

 ᮭ [Pamela Samuelson], ᯥ   ᪮  ⥫㠫쭮 ࠢ,

. . -. [. . Rogers, Jr.],   Equifax,

㒠-୮ [Peter Tarczy-Hornoch], ᪮ ⮫,  㤥  ६  ⫥, ⮡ ᪠  樭᪮ ଠ⨪, 樭᪮ ਢ⭮  㣨    ஡,

 ⮭ [Brad Templeton], ஦ ୥,  ᥣ ᮢ ⢨ 孮  ⨪,

  [Bruce Wilder],   ࣠, 襬  ᥡ   ᮪ 樭᪮ ଠ樨  客騪,

 ⥯⮭- [Ross Stapleton-Gray], ᪠襬   ᢮   ஫ ꥪ Internet Hunt  த襬 ⥬ ࠡ    讬 ⢥ 㣨 ஥⮢.

 ⮩  뫠 ᠭ ᭮ 1997 ,   ⠦஢  設⮭᪮ 㭨  ⫥.   ୨ [Alan Borning]  䠪   ந   ; ࣮ म [Margo Gordon] ࠧ⨫ . 設⮭᪨ 㭨 -   ᠬ   祡   .   ᪫⥫쭮  㭨᪨ த, 讥 ⢮ 㤥⮢  騩 롮 ᮢ.  ⠬,  ᬮ    ᯮ짮 筮 ⥬ 㭨, ᮡ ⥪ Suzzallo and Allen  Odegaard Undergraduate.  ⨫ ⢮   ୨ 権; 㤥, 訥 ⠬ ᭮ 1997 ,  㢨    묨  ⮩   ᮡﬨ  㭨   ਮ.  ९⥫ 쬠 譮 㤥﫨  ६;    諨   .  ⠪ 砫   祭 䥪⨢ 㦡 ⢥ ଠ樨 㭨.  ६ ॡ뢠  ⮬ 㭨  뫮  ⢮    樭᪮ ଠ⨪  樭᪮ 䠪 UW,    ⠪ 祭 ७.  ⢥ ⭮襭 ⠪  祭 襭, ।⠢  饭  ୨  ᮧ  ᨮ 㯯 Technology and Democracy Study Group;     ⮩    ஧砫 ⠬.

ࠣ 㪮 ⮩  ⠫  ᮭ [Hal Abelson],  㪬, ᮭ ⫨⮬, 蠡   [Rishab Aiyer Ghosh],   [Sian Gramates],  ਪ, ୠ ਭ [Bernard Greenberg],  䨫 [Andrew Listfield],  ⥭,   [Gene Spafford]    [Hal Varian].    祭 業 ਨ  ᮢ.    ⠫ ᢮ , O'Reilly ய⨫  㪮 १  ଠ쭮 業஢.  ४᭠ ࠪ⨪ । 砥 ᥣ  ⥫᪮ .   [Alexa Champion],  , ᪠  [Oscar Gandy], ୠ ਭ   ⥭ ⠫  㪮    ⢮  ४権, ᤥ  த ࠧ . ᮡ 業묨 뫨 ਨ ઠ:  ⢥ 砭 ⠢﫮  ।뢠 楫 ࠭!
  ⮩ ,  祭 ᥫ   㣨 㯠  横 <⠭>.     뫮 , ⮡ 㯨   <⠭>,   5 ஢     ,   뫮   㦭.   ⮫쪮 砫 ࠡ  , ⠭  14,95        ᢮ ᠩ 㡫   ਢ⭮.     ,  ஬ 묨 㪢 ᠭ: <⠭  த,  ᤠ  ७,  ᯮ     뢠 - 㣨 ࠧ ᮭ ଠ>.  ⨪ ஡ ,   ଠ   web-ᠩ,  ᯮ <稪>[p86]    楫 <ᮭ쭠 ଠ> ᯮ  ࣠樨.  祭 饥 ,   ⭮ 㬠,    ஬ த ᯮᮡ⢮  , ᮢ  1997 , 祬  web-ᠩ  ⠪ 㢥. ࠫ ⮩ ਨ  ⮬,  ࣠樨   ࠢ 頬.

 ,     ᪠  <⠭>    ⨭, 뫨    ᫥⥫  ⠭ [Jayne Stancavage].  ࠧ   ࠡ⭨, 祬 ,   ,    ﬨ ࠧ﫠,  ᨫ   ஥. 筮,  ⮣  ᤥ, ,  , ⮦.

 ࠡ    稭,  뢠  1989 ,  쥧     1995 .  ᥫ [Debby Russel]  O'Reilly   ஥   ,   1998  訫 ।஢  㡫 .        ᢥ.   ⬥砥 10-⭨  襩 ᮢ⭮ ⥫쭮  ;   ,   ᤥ .

  [Hanna Dyer] ᮧ ⥫   ⮩ ;   [Alicia Cech] ᤥ  ࠡ  ७ ;  ਤ [Edie Freedman]   ᪠ 㯯 O'Reilly ᤥ ४  ⢮ ࠡ, ᮧ ⮤  ଠ 騩  .   [Michael Snow]  ⮬⠦  Adobe Photoshop,  ਤ ਤ㬠  ᪢,    [John Feingersh]  Stock Market ᤥ ⮣ .        [Melani Wang] ਤ㬠 ⥫    ਣ쭮 ७ ,   㫡 [Emma Colby] ᮧ .

  த ஬ ࠡ,   , ᮡ ᫨  ⢮  室 ਠ.   [Sara Winge],   [Cathy Record]   பਭ [Mark Brokering] ஢ ஬ ࠡ  ।매⥫᪮ થ⨭ ⮩ ࠤ樮  O'Reilly  - 㤥 ,   ࠭ !

ந⢥ ।   [Madelein Newell] 㦨 㪢쭮  ⮪  筮⥩  ⨢     ६  ࠢ.    [Anna Kim Snow],  ଠ [Colleen Gorman],   [David Futato],   [Jeff Holcomb],   [Nancy Kotery]    [Abby Mayers] ⢨ 業 ஫ ⢠  ந⢥ প. 祫  [Rachel Wheller] ⢫﫠 ஫ ⢠  ந⢥ প      .   [Mike Sierra] ॠ ७   ᯮ짮 Adobe FrameMaker 5.5.   [Robert Romano]  ࣠ ࠧ饭 権.  ⬠  [Ellen Troutman Zaig] ⠢ .   [Dan Appleman]   㪮 ⥫쭮 ஢થ    ,  ,  襫  .

,  ⥫      ਬ  [Lew Grimes],  ন  ஥  祭   ,      [Beth Rosenberg],  , প,      ᨫ  ६  ࠡ  ⨬ ந.

ਤ, ,  -

 1999  2000




 ॢ稪


ᮭ 䨭   ६  ᫮,    ॢ. 祭 ᭮  ⨢   ॢ  ⨥.  㣮 ஭, ࠧ஭   㡮    ࠧ  ॡ 祭 ⥫ ਠ  ⭮ ॢ.

 ᫮  ॢ 뭥ᥭ  筮   ᫮ <privacy>.  祭  ⨥,   ᪮ 몥  ⢥ ᫮, ஥     ।  ࠭ ᫠  <privacy>. <ਢ⭮>, <ᥪ⭮>, <筠 ⠩>, <ࠢ  >, <ᨬ> -    ᯨ᮪ ਠ⮢,   室 롨   ⭮ ⥪. ७ ,   㤠 ࠢ쭮 । ⥭ ᫠.

᪮쪮 㠫쭠  . 䨭  ᨨ?     ,  ᬠਢ   ஡    -     ⮫쪮 易  ࠬ  ᮢ६묨 孮ﬨ.   ⮬  室 ᮧ ⢮ 뢠   ஡      .  㦥 ᮧ <  >,    ⮨  ண  ᮧ.  祬-  㦥 砫  訡 ਪ楢:  ᮧ  ࠧ Social Security Numbers (SSN) 쭮 뢠    . ୮,  ⮨  ᢮ 訡 -   㦨.    ,   ࠡ  ॢ ⮩ ⥫쭮  뫠  祭 ᫮. ⠫  ௥ 﫠  砢訥   ᯥ樠 ନ   宫      ॢ.   ஢᪮ ᥣ  뫮   ᠬ  娬  ,  ⠪    롮  筮 ਠ ॢ.  ਥ   ⮭ 㢠 ᥣ  뫮 㤨 ॢ ᫮ ࠧ   業 ࠭ ଠ.  ᯨ᮪  ,    , ⮡ -  ய.  筮, ᮡ ୮  ᥬ    প -  ६ ࠡ  頫   ࠧ , 祬  ஬.

᫠ ﭪ



ਬ砭




1


Harris-Equifax, Consumer Privacy Survey. Conducted for Equifax by Louis Harris and Assiciates in association with Dr. Alan Westin of Columbia University, Equifax, Atlanta, GA, 1996.




2


Harris-Equifax, Consumer Privacy Survey. Conducted for Equifax by Louis Harris and Assiciates in association with Dr. Alan Westin of Columbia University, Equifax, Atlanta, GA, 1995.




3


Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis, <The Right of Privacy>, Harvard Law Review 4 (1890), 193. ᬮ    㫨஢ <ࠢ  > ਯ뢠 ७  ,   ⢥ত,    㯮ॡ  XIX    㫨 [Thomas . Cooley].




4


Turkington et al., Privacy: Cases and materials.




5


David H. Flaherty, Protecting Privacy in Surveillance Societies (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).

1989  ᯥ樠 㯮祭  ࠢ 祫 ⠭᪮ 㬡   㫨஢      12 ਭ樯  ࠢ  ଠ樨  ࠢ⥫⢥ ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ᮭ  [Data Protection Principles and Practices for Government Personal Information Systems].  ਭ樯 룫 ᫥騬 ࠧ (뤥 ᨢ      1997).

ਭ樯 㡫筮  ஧筮 () ࠢ⥫⢥ ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ᮭ  (   ᥪ  ).

ਭ樯 室  ५⭮ ࠢ ᠬ ᡮ  ࠭ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

ਭ樯 樨 ⢠ ᮡࠥ, ᯮ㥬  ࠭ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

ਭ樯 ⥫쭮 (楫 ᡮ  ᫥饣 ᯮ짮 ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨  ⠭ ࠭).

ਭ樯 祭  ஫ ⢥⢥  ᯫ ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

ਭ樯 ஫  ꥤ, 뫪  ⢨ ᨢ   ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥.

ਭ樯 易⥫쭮 祭 ᮣ ꥪ  ᡮ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

ਭ樯 ᮡ 筮  祭  ⥬ ࠡ⪨ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.

ਭ樯 ⢥⢥  襭 ࠢ ࠡ  ᮭ쭮 ଠ樥,  ࠦ  㣮 ⢥⢥.

易⥫쭮  ᯥ樠 ࠢ  ᮭ ,  䨤樠묨.

ࠢ    ᢮ ଠ樨   ४஢.

ࠢ  ,     㭨⮦  ᥩ ᮭ쭮 ଠ樨.




6


  ⠪ 䥤ࠫ ணࠬ ࠢ  , ᮤঠ  ,  믫⨢ ᢮   祭  ,   䥤ࠫ 㦠  㣮  .  砥 ᮢ ᮮ⢥ 㬬 ⮬᪨ 뢠  ࠡ⭮  㦠饣. ஡ ⮩ ணࠬ,    㣨, 뫠  ⮬,    ᮢ 뫨 訡묨  稭 ४⭮  , ᮧ  ᮢ . ᪮  ந ⮬᪨,  ᮢ  뫨 뢠 ᢮ , .. 訡筮 ᮢ.




7


<Automated Government - How Computers Are Being Used in Washington to Streamline Personnel Administration to the Individual's Benefit>, Saturday Review, 23  1966.




8


Vance Packard, <Don't Tell It to the Computer>, New York Times Magazine, 8 ﭢ 1967.




9


Rosenberg, The Death of Privacy, p. 1.




10


<McVeigh Prosecutor Cries During Trial>, Associated Press, 8  1997. ਠ 㯥  ୥   http://herald-mail.com/ news/11997/bombing_trial/stories/may8_97. html.




11


<Answers for the Evidence>, Detroit Free Press, 17  1997. ਠ 㯥  ୥   http://www.freepress.com/news/ bombtrial/qcasel7.htm.




12


Charles J. Bashe, Lyle R. Johnson, John H. Palmer, Emerson W. Pugh, IBM's early computers (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986).




13


Social Security Administration official history. ਠ 㯥  ୥   http://www.ssa.gov/history.




14


Westin, Alan R, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 33.




15


Westin, Alan R, Privacy and Freedom (New York: Atheneum, 1967), p. 304.




16


Westin, Alan R, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 472.




17


Ibid., p. 134.




18


Ibid., p. 135.




19


ॢ室 ᠭ ਨ ᮧ  ਭ <  筮 ⭮  ।⠬>    : Miller, The Assault On Privacy.




20


Westin, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 137-138.




21


 , 14 ﭢ 1995.




22


Smith, War Stories, 1994.




23


Hearing Before the House Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs on the Fair Credit Reporting Act on September 13, 1989 (p. 30),    : Smith, War Stories.




24


Jim Mallory, <Social Security Workers Charged with Data Theft>, Newsbytes News Network (http://www.newsbytes.com), 4  1996.




25


 , ५ 1995. . ⠪ <Separating the Equifax from Fiction>, Wired Magazine, ᥭ 1995, p. 96.




26


筨  - ࠢ 樠쭮 客.




27


   : Cummings and Midlo, Finger Prints, Palms and Soles.




28


Bertillion, Signaletic Instructions, .




29


  ⨫쮭  ਬ⨪ ⠫  ⮫쪮 ᠬ  ⥬ 䨪樨,  筮  ਧ <஬   ᥣ 筮>, ᪮쪮 뢥  ࠢ,   ⥬ 䨪樨   ⥬⨧஢  ꥪ⨢, ᮡ ᫨  祫 ⠥ ⢨ 䨪  , ᮡ࠭ 㣨 祫.  䥤 ஠⮬ 樭᪮ 誮 㭨   [Cummings]  業 ⮩  䥤  [Midlo] ᠫ  ᢮  Finger Prints, Palms and Soles, p. 143: <[⨫쮭] ᬮ५  ⥫ ⮤, ਬ訥 ࠭  䨪樨 㯭,  । ᯮ짮 ७  ࠬ஢ ⥫.  ⢥ ⥬᪮ ⮤, ஢  ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠, ⥬ ⨫쮭  訥 १, 祬  㠫쭮 . ७ ᠬ  ᥡ ࠧ㬥 䨪, ,  ᢮ ।,  ६ ਡ⮬  ⥬ 䨪樨 筮,  ன   . ⥬ ⨫쮭, ஬   ᥣ 筠, 뫠 ⥯   ࠢ  ⢥ ⮤ 䨪樨  ⯥⪠ 楢,   饥 ६ ᥬ⭮ ᯮ  ॣ樨 㯭  室   ப ਬ  ࠦ᪨   楫>.




30


, 䨫 ᮭ.

᪨ ॢ  㯥  http://lib.rus.ec/b/57097(ਬ.⠢⥫ FB2)




31


Cummings and Midlo, Finger Prints, palms and Soles.    ᫥  ᯮ짮 ⯥⪮  ॢ ६.   ਢ ⮣ 㥬 ⯥⪠  ⨭᪮ ,  ன  IV-V. .., ।⠢ ஬  [Bade]  ⨭᪮   Pacific School of Religion.  ਢ ⮣ ⠩᪮  III.  .. <  ஭  ᥭ ,   㣮 - ⪮ ࠧ稬 ⯥⮪ 讣 . 宦 ⮣ ⯥⪠    ।,   ᯮ짮  ᮭ쭮 ,     ᤥ  ⮩  楫,   ᮢ६ ⥬ 䨪樨  ⯥⪠ 楢 -  ᯮ>.  ⢥ 筨  ਢ 䠪⮢  뫠  : Alfred . Haddon, Evolution in Art (Scribner's, 1895).




32


Ibid.




33


Wilson and Woodard, Automated Fingerprint Identification System.




34


Ibid., p. 14.




35


Ibid., p. 1.




36


 , 11  1988 .




37


Automated Fingerprint Identification System, p. 1.




38


 , 1  1991.




39


 ,  1997.




40


People v. Castro, 144 Misc. 2d 956, 545 N.Y.S. 2d 985 (Sup. Ct. 1989).




41


State v. Schwartz, 447 N.W. 2d 422 (Minn. 1989).




42


Cobey v. State, 80 Md. App. 31, 559 A.2d 391 (Md. App. 1989).




43


 ,  1997.




44


E. S. Lander and B. Budowle, <DNA Fingerprinting Dispute Laid to Rest>, Nature, 371 (1994), p.735-738.




45


<Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial>, National Institute of Justice Research Report,  1996.  ⥪ 㬥 㯥   http://www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles/dnaevid.txt.




46


<Son in Sheppard case Wins an Exhumation Bid: Seek DNA Testing to Vindicate Father>, Associated Press, Boston Sunday Globe, 13  1997, p. A16.




47


Paul Ferrara, chair, <Laboratory Funding Issues Working Group Report>, in Proceedings of the National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence, 23  1998.  㯭   http:// www.ojp.usdoi.gov/nij/dnamtgtrans3/trans-j.html.




48


  ७樨 <Computer, Freedom and Privacy>, 8 ५ 1999.




49


  [Thomas H. Speeter]  AT &T Bell Laboratories ࠧࠡ⠫   ,   ஢ 㯠饣   祫    । .  ࠧ ⥬ ।⠢ ᮡ   ࠧ஬  30  ᥭ୮ 楩 16x16,   ᥭ ।⠢ 뢠    ᫮    0  255.  ࢮ ஢  ᨫ 10 ஢楢 㯨    ६ 筮 宦  , ⥬   ன ⭮.   롮ન ꥬ  188 ⠭ (蠣)  ⠫,   ஢ 祫  ⭮ 99% 㦥 ᫥  ⮢ 蠣   ⭮ 100% - ᫥ . 筮, 訩 ꥬ 롮ન    㡥⥫,  ᫥   砥 ,  蠣  祫  㠫쭮,   㦥 ᥣ  ࠧ   蠣. .: Thomas H. Speeter, <Identification Using Ground Reaction Force patterns>, AT &T Bell Laboratories.




50


Donald Foster, <Primary Culprit>, New York, 26 䥢ࠫ 1996, p.50-57.




51


<Joe Klein Says He Is Anonymous Primary Colors Author>, Associated Press, 17  1996.




52


Robert O'Harrow, Jr., and Liz Leyden, <U.S. Helped Fund Photo Database of Driver IDs; Firm's Plan Seen as Way to Fight Identity Crimes>, Washington Post, 18 䥢ࠫ 1999, p. Al. 娢  㯥   http://wearcam.org/drivers-license-picture-sale.html.




53


Steve Mann, <"Smart Clothing": Wearable Multimedia and "Personal Imaging" to Restore the Balance Between People and Their Intelligent Environments>, Proceedings, ACM Multimedia 1996, 18-22  1996.




54


 , 25  1994.




55


James Finn and Leonard R. Sussman, eds., Today's American: How Free? (New York: Freedom House, 1986), p. 111.




56


Ibid.




57


U.S. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration, <U.S. Drug Threat Assessment: 1993. Drug Intelligence Report. Availability, Price, Purity, Use, and Trafficking of Drugs in the United States>, ᥭ 1993, DEA-93042. 㯭  ୥   http://mir.drugtext.org/ druglibrary/schaffer/GOVPUBS/usdta.htm.




58


<TV-Movie Actress Slain in Apartment,> Associated Press, 19  1989. <Arizona Holds man in Killing of Actress>, Associated Press, 20  1989. <Suspect in Slaying Paid to Find Actress>, Associated Press, 23  1989.




59


 NYNEX, ࠧ᫠ ⠬ ᭮ 1997 .




60


 , 9 ᥭ 1997.




61


Bruce Schneier, <Why Intel's ID Tracker Won't Work>, ZDNet News, 26 ﭢ 1999. ୮ 㡫  ᯨ᪥ 뫪 RISK Digest 20:19. 㯭  ୥   http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/ 20.19.html#subj4.




62


Westin, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 93.




63


 ⥬ । ﬨ: American Veterinary Identification Devices (AVID),  ন  <PETtrac recovery>; HomeAgain, த饩 稯 Destron, InfoPet Systems, த饩 ⥬ Trovan,  PetNet, த饩 稯 Anitech.    ਭ  ⭨ 譨  த ᯮ,  稯 ,  襢,   ⠥  ..  ⢥   ⪠ ᪮஢ 뢠⥫,  㬥    稯, ᯫ⭮ । 뢠⥫ ⠬ (   㢥祭 த 稯), 㪢쭮 㯠    ⪨. ஬諥 ਫ ⠢ ⥬ <稯஢>   . ਬ, Trovan த ᨫ  ࠭ᯮ ID 100   ID 103.   ᯥ樠쭮 ࠧࠡ⠭  ஬諥 ਫ  袥 ஬諥. 窠  ⥪ﭭ ⥭  ⮫騭, 뤥ন騥 ⢨   쭮 .  뤥ন ⥬  180C.      ⬠ᮢ ⠫, ⠭ ꥬ  ।.




64


Murphy, Kate, <Get Along Little Dogie #384-591E: Laptop Cowboys Riding Herd on the Electronic Frontier>, New York Times, 쭨, 21  1997.




65


ITS America News, ५ 1997, p.6-8.




66


ਭ  1997  <   ਢ⭮ ⥫> [Driver's Privacy and Protection Act] ॡ  ⮢ ।⠢   묠 ᢮   ⮬쭮    ⮣,   㤥 ।⠢  뭮.




67


 , 27  1997.




68


Police Commissioner v. Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (Sup. Ct. NYC IA part 50R, 26 ),   Privacy Journal,  1997.




69


Robert Uhlig, <Spy Phones Trace Cheating Husbands>, Electronic Telegraph, 27  1997. 㯭  ୥  : http:// www. telegraph, . u k:80et?ac = 002093890 5 54028 &rtwo = r3bhbhhx &atmo=99999999 &pg=/et/97/8/27/nbt27.html,  ᮮ頫  ᪥ RISK Digest  29  1997.




70


 ,  1997.




71


The Second Conference on Computers, Freedom and Privacy, Washington, D.C., 1992. .: http://www.cpsr.org/dox/conferences/cfp92/ home.html.




72


Joseph Malia, <Waste.com: Public Employees Using Internet for Sex, Drugs, and Rock 'n' Roll>, Boston Herald, 12  1999, p. 1.  ⥪ 㯥  ୥  ᠬ http://www.bostonherald.com/ bostonherald/lonw/emai05121999.htm  http://www.mapinc.org/drugnews/ v99.n505.all.html/lsd.




73


U.S. Department of Commerce, Privacy and the Nil: Safeguarding Telecommunications-Related Personal Information,  1995. 㯭  ୥   http://nsi.org/Library/Comm/privnii.html.




74


樮  USA Today, 25  1995.




75


The Diebold Institute for Public Policy Studies, Inc., Transportation Infostructures (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995).




76


 , 20 䥢ࠫ 1997.




77


 ᠬ  㦭    ⠢ 40 074,   ਤ (१ ) - 40 000. ᫠ 룫 ⥫쭮? ⢨⥫쭮,   ।  1791  ࠭᪮    1/10000000 ⢥ 㣨 㦭 , ஢  ୮    १ ਦ.  1889  㭠த    ᮢ ८।   ﭨ  ᪠, ᥭ묨  ⠫ ⠫᪮ ᪥, ࠭饬  ਦ. (ࠧ  뫮  ᮪ 筮  ᮪, 祬 ﭨ  ୮   !)  1960    ८। ᭮  ࠬ 㭠த ⥬   ⠫ ࠢ 1650763,73    㬥 ࠭-᭮   ᯥ ⮬ ਯ⮭-86.  1983   ८।  ࠧ ࠫ쭮 ७樥  ࠬ  ᠬ  ⠫ ࠢ ﭨ, ஥ ᢥ 室  㬥  1/299792458 ᥪ㭤.  ८।  﫮 祭  ᥬ  ந ᢮ ७   襩 筮.  । ⠪ ࠧ ᮮ⭮ᨫ  㢥稢饩 筮  㬥⮢    ।    襭 筮.




78


Technology Review,  1996. . http://www.tech-rereview.com/articles/oct96/Shulman.html.




79


ଠ  ⭨ Landsat, Seasat, TIROS, Transit  Vela  横 <Britannica>,  1997 .   㯭   http://www.eb.com.




80


 , ५ 1997.




81


 web-ᠩ Space Imaging, http://www.spaceimage.com/abou-tus/owerview6.html#consumer, 24 ५ 1999.




82


뤥প  Government Technology Industry Profile: EOSAT (४ ᡮ୨), 1996.    EOSAT 뫠 २  Space Imaging  ᯮ  饥 ६ ࠦﬨ  ࠧ襭 1 , 砥묨  ⭨ IKONOS (, 祬  IRS-1C). . http://www.spaceimaging.com.




83


஡ ணࠬ ᥪ稢      http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/glis/hyper/guide/disp. ਬ  ᮡ⨩      http://edcwww. cr.usgs.gov/dclass/dclass.html.




84


 筮 ९᪨ (஭ ), 11 ५ 1997.




85


News Scientist, 12 ५ 1997 , . 4.




86


Privacy International, <Video Surveillance>. .: http:// www.privacy.org/pi/issues/cctv/.




87


 , 21 䥢ࠫ 1996.




88


 , 21 䥢ࠫ 1996.




89


Consumer Electronic Manufacturing Association, Arlington VA.




90


 ࠭ Trojan Room Coffee Pot 室   http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/xvcoffee.




91


 ,  1997.




92


  : http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/regions/northwest/NWFLOW/camera/camfaq.htm, 9 ५ 1997.




93


Martin Minow, <ࢥ᪠  >, RISK Digest 19:13. 㯭  ୥   http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/ 19.13.html#subj8.1.




94


All Things Considered, National Public Radio, 12  1997.




95


Clive Norris and Garry Armstrong, <The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Space>, Centre for Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, U.K.   <Prejudice Drives CCTV Targets>, KDIS Online, 24  1997. 㯭  ୥   http://merlin.legend.org.uk/~brs/archive/stories97/Suspects.html.




96


Simon Davies, <Summary of Oral Evidence of Simon Davies>, 23  1997. 㯭  ୥   http://www.privacy.org/ pi/issues/cctv/lords_testimony.html.




97


 , 9  1997.




98


Katz v. U. S., 389 U.S. 347 (1967).




99


<: At last!>, Incorporated Research Institution for Seismology, IRIS Newsletter, vol. XV, no. 3, Fall 1996, p.1-3.




100


Christel B. Hennet (IRIS), Gregory van der Vink (IRIS), Danny Harvey (University of Colorado), and Christopher Chyba (Princeton University), <IRIS Assists Senate in Investigation of International Terrorist gGroup>, IRIS Newsletter, Fall 1996, p.13-15.




101


Dr. George Way, New York, NY, ஢ Scott Winokur, <Nowhere to Hide>, San Francisco Examiner, 7-12  1984, p. 13. 㡫: Robert Ellis Smith and Eric Siegel, War Stories: Accounts of Person Victimized by Invasion of Privacy (㡫 Privacy Journal, PO BOX 28577, Providence, RI 02908. 401-274-7861, 1990).




102


Testimony of U.S. Representative Nydia Veldzquez to the Senate Judiciary Committee, 1994. .: Ann Cavoukian and Don Tapscott, Who Knows? Safeguarding Your Privacy in a Networked World (Toronto: Random House of Canada, 1995, p. 103).




103


 , 25  1997.




104


 筮 ९᪨ (஭ ), 24  1997.




105


Cavoukian and Tapscott, Who Knows? p. 98.




106


Harris-Equifax, Health Information Privacy Survey. ஢  Equifax ମ Louis Harris and Associated  㤭⢥  ஬  ⨭  㬡᪮ 㭨. Study No. 934009, Louis Harris and Associates. New York, NY, 1993.




107


-५, National Research Council, 5  1997.




108


Janlori Goldman, <Regarding the Confidentiality of Health Records>, statement before the US House of Representatives Government Operations Subcommittee on Information, Justice, Transportation and Agriculture, 4  1993.




109


<Who's Reading Your Medical Records?>, Consumer Reports,  1994, p.628-632. ஢ : Etzioni, Limits of Privacy, p. 147.




110


  Privacy Summit Conference, 1995.




111


Morgantown Dominition Post, Morgantown WV, 13  1989, p. 1; Privacy Journal victim file. 㡫  War Stories.




112


㡫  War Stories II, p. 58.




113


 , 25  1997.




114


David F. Linowes, <A Research Survey of Privacy in the Workplace>, 㡫 ࠡ, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, ५ 1996.




115


Etzioni, The Limits of Privacy, p. 145.




116


 樭᪮ 客  ⢥ ,    .     㯠   ,  ⠢  ஬ ⢮ 㬥⮢ । ᠭ.   ᨫ   ᠭ 㬥      㣥: ⥭    ᠭ 㫮  ᮢ 楤  3-4 ᮢ. 祭    ⠭  ⮬ ᮣ襭  ᯮ짮 । ,     ⠫ ᢮ ࠢ 짮 ⮫騭   ⥫䮭 ࠢ筨,   뫠 ᮣ襭.  ࠪ᪨   ⠥ 㧥쪮 業 ᮣ襭   ணࠬ, ᬮ     ࠦ ᮣᨥ  ᫮ﬨ ᮣ襭, ᯮ   ணࠬ.




117


Smith, Managing Privacy, p. 143.




118


 , 29  1997.




119


Smith, Managing Privacy, p. 58.




120


Ibid., p. 33.




121


Garfinkel, Simson, L., <From Database to Blacklist: Computer Records Let Employers and Landlords Discriminate Against Unsuspecting Applicants>, Christian Science Monitor, 1  1990, p. 12.




122


 , 26  1997.




123


Harris-Equifax, Health Information Privacy Survey, 1993.




124


Privacy Journal's Compilation of State and Federal Privacy Laws (Providence: Privacy Journal, 1997).




125


J. Michaelis, M. Miller, K. Pommerening and I. Shmidtmann <A New Concept to Ensure Data Privacy and Data Security in Cancer Registries>, Medinfo 1995; X pt 1:661-665.




126


 , 24  1997.




127


 , 24  1997.




128


 , 24  1997.




129


 , 5  1999  23  1999.




130


 , 24  1997.




131


 , 24  1997.




132


 , 29 ५ 1997.




133


Protecting Electronic Health Information, Committee on Maintaining Privacy and Security in Health Care Applications of the National Information Infrastructure, national Research Council (Washington, DC, 1997).




134


 , 22 䥢ࠫ 1996.




135


Westin, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 156.




136


 , 20 䥢ࠫ 1996.




137


Privacy Journal,  1999, p. 5.




138


 筮 ९᪨, 1995.




139


Harris-Equifax, Health Information Privacy Survey, 1993, p. 4.




140


Smith, War Stories II, p. 17.




141


<The ABCs at the FTC: Marketing and Advertising to Children>, Summary of Prepared Remarks of Commissioner Roscoe B. Starek III, Federal Trade Commission, Advertising and Promotion Law 1997, Minnesota Institute of Legal Education, 25 , 1997. 㯭  ୥   http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/starek/minnfin.htm.




142


 KidsCom  ୥ http://www.kidscom.com.




143


 Disney  ୥ http://www.disney.com.




144


 , 22 䥢ࠫ 1996.




145


  DM News, 䥢ࠫ 1996.




146


筨: ਪ᪨ ⠫ த⮢   Experian. 㯥  ୥   http://www.experian.com/catalog_us/ index.html.




147


Westin, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 163.




148


 , 14 䥢ࠫ 1995.




149


Howard Schneider, <Telemarketing Scams based in Canada Increasingly Target U.S. Residents>, The Washington Post, 24  1997, p. A21.




150


Paul Schwartz and Joel Reidenberg, Data Protection Law, p. 333. .: Marc Rotenberg, <Testimony and Statement for the Record of Marc Rotenberg, Director Electronic Privacy Information Center, on the Children's Privacy Protection and Parental Empowernment Act, H.R. 3508, Before the House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, September 12, 1996>. 㯭  ୥   http:// www. epic. org/privacy/kids/EPIC_Testimony.html.




151


Ibid., p. 338.




152


Robert O'Harrow, Jr., <Prescription Sales, Privacy Fears; CVS, Giant Share Customer Records with Drug Marketing Firm>, Washington Post, 15 䥢ࠫ 1998, p. A01.




153


12  1970  १  ᮭ ᠫ <  ८࣠樨 ⮢ 㦡> [Postal Reorganization Act].  ८ࠧ ⮢ ⠬ [Post Office Department]  ⮢ 㦡  ⮢ [United States Postal Service], ਭ ࠢ⥫ ௮.




154


Westin, Databanks in a Free Society, p. 162.




155


 筮 ९᪨ (஭ ), 4  5  1997.




156


 , 19 ५ 1995.




157


 , 18-19  1997.




158


Robertson v. Rochester Folding Box Co., 171 NY 538.




159


 ᠬ  堬 ,    ॣ஢  㦡 -  ஦    -  ⠫,  㦡  ࠡ⠥. < ஡ ᯮ짮 ,   த ᫠  ᪨ ।,- ᪠ .-  ,   אַ நନ஢  ᢮ ᪥  DMA, த ᫠  ।.  ਢ   뢮,  [ ]  ॠ쭮 ᮢ ४ 뫪  ।>.




160


 筮 ९᪨ (஭ ), 4-5  1997.




161


 , 22 䥢ࠫ 1996.




162


 , 14 䥢ࠫ 1995.




163


 , 15 ५ 1997.




164


Harris-Equifax, Consumer Privacy Survey, 1996.




165


 ,  1997.




166


A. Heimler and A. Zanko, <Huntington Disease: A Case Study Describing the Complexities and Nuances of Predictive Testing of Monozygotic Twins>, Journal of Genetic Counseling  (1995): 125-137. (Letter and replies Journal of Genetic Counseling 5:47-50.)




167


 ⭮襭  ᪨ ⠬ 客  ࠫ । ਠ.  饥 ६   客   ॡ  饣 客   ஢ 室 ᫥  ᪨  - 筮 ⮬,    筮 ண,- , ᫨ ⥫ 襫 ⠪ ᫥, 客  訢 १.   ⭮ ⡮,  ஬ , 騥,    ⥫ ᪮   ᯮ짮 ࠢ ⨪ 客,   ६  ,  㢥७   ᢮ ᪮ ஢  室  客.    䠪஢  ਢ  ⮬,  客 믫         䮭 㬥襭 ⢠ ஢ , 믫稢  客 ६. ⮬   ᪨ 㯠 客 .




168


墠뢠    ⢮  12-  <Outrageous Fortune: Selling Other People's Cells> ४᭮  George J. Annas, Standard of Care: The Law of American Bioethics.




169


GM-CSF (granulocyte-macrophage colony simulating factor)- ࠭㫮୮-䠣 ⨬㫨騨 䠪.




170


 , 27  1997.




171


 , 27  1997.




172


 , 28  1997.




173


Jane E. Ellis, Larry D. Byrd, William R. Sexson and  Anne Patterson-Barnett, <In Utero Exposure to Cocaine: A Review>, Southern Medical Journal, vol. 86 (7) (1993): 725-731.




174


 , 28  1997.




175


US Department of Health and Human Services, <Three Breast Cancer Gene Alternations in Jewish Community>, National Cancer Institute Press Office, 05-20-1997.




176


Melinda Greenberg, <Dr. Lawrence  Brody on Breast Cancer>, Baltimore Jewish Times, 13  1995.




177


 , 9  1997.




178


John Hopkins School of Medicine, <Ashkenazi Jewish Families>, Advertisement, New York Times, 23 ᥭ 1997.




179


 , 1 ᥭ 1997.




180


४᭮ १ ਨ  ᫠᪮    ஥ deCODE      Ricki Lewis <Iceland 's Public Supports Database, but Scientists Object>, Scientist, vol. 13:15 (1999).




181


 Mannvernd  ୥ http://www.mannvernd.is/english/ index.html.




182


.: http://www.mannvernd.is/english/articles/greely_ &_king-e.html.




183


 ᠬ  Haloid Xerox, Inc. ।⠢ ஢  Model ,  ⠪   <Ox Box> 22  1948     Optical Society of America  ன. ᨢ  270 設   뫠 饭  뭮  ,   ந⢠  ॡ 14  権.  1955   ⨫ Xerox Copyflo - ࢮ ⮬᪮ ண᪮ ன⢮, ᯮᮡ ந 뢭   筮 㬠. (筨: 1987 Fact Book, Xerox;  ⠪ <News Stories in 1948>  web-ᠩ 樮쭮 㦡 ࠢ࠭ [Nation's Health Service], http://www.nhs50.nhs.uk/nhsstory-thisweek-oct25.htm).




184


 , 20 ﭢ 1997.




185


Sreenath Sreenivasan, <What Is a Hit Film? Moviefone May Know>, New York Times, 2  1997.




186


  設⮭᪮ 㭨, 25 䥢ࠫ 1997.




187


   ஢     ᮬ [Jack Rogers] 19 ५ 1995.




188


  ,   設⮭᪮ 㭨,  1997 .




189


 , 14  1997 .




190


 , 11  1997 .




191


 , 11  1997 .




192


 , 11  1997 .




193


William Scally, <Man Charged Following White House Attack>, Reuters Newswire, 30  1994 .




194


William Neikirk and Christopher Drew, <Small Plane Crashes on White House Lawn, Pilot Dies>, Chicago Tribune, 12 ᥭ 1994 .




195


 ,  1997 .




196


Ramberg, Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy.




197


Torok et al., <A large Community Outbreak of Salmonellosis Caused by International Contamination of Restaurant Salad Bars>, Journal of the American Medical Association, 278:5 (1997), p. 389.




198


Ibid.




199


Leonard A. Cole, <The Specter of Biological Weapons>, Scientific American,  1996. 㯭  ୥  : http:// www.sciam.com/1296issue/1296cole.html.




200


J. W. Barber, Intresting Events in the History of the United States (New Haven: Barber, 1829),  : James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me (Simon & Schuster, 1995).




201


<Argentine Computer Hacker Agrees to Surrender>, Associated Press, 6  1997. 㯭  娢   http://www.techserver.com/ newsroom/ntn/info/120697/info 7_5811_noframes.html.




202


David H. Freedman and Charles C. Mann, At Large: The Strange Case of the World's Biggest Internet Invasion (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997).




203


Murphy, World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties, p. 90.




204


New York World, 28 ﭢ 1918, p.1-2; New York Times, 18  1919, p. 8; .: Murphy, World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties, p. 95.




205


Milwaukee Publishing Co. v. Burleson, 255 U.S. 407 (1921).




206


Murphy, World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties, p. 109-110.




207


 ᠭ  .: Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation (New York: Random House, 1952), p.149-53.




208


Flaherty, Privacy in Colonial New England, p. 125-126.   筨 ଠ樨 : Kenneth Ellis, The Post Office in the Eighteen Century: A Study in Administrative History (London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), p.60-77; William Cobbett, Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England (London: R. Bagshaw, 1806-1820), IX (1733-1737), p.839-848.




209


Irvine v. California, 347 U.S. 128.




210


Silverman v. United States, 356 U.S. 505.




211


Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347.




212


1999 Wiretap Report, Administrative Office of the United States Courts.




213


1998 Wiretap Report, Administrative Office of the United States Courts, p. 11. 㯭  ୥   http://www.uscourts.gov/ wiretap98/content.html.




214


Ibid.




215


1996 Wiretap Report, Administrative Office of the United States Courts.




216


Bruce Schneier and David Banisar, eds, The Electronic Privacy Papers: Documents on the Battle for Privacy in the Age of Surveillance (New York: Wiley, 1997).




217


.: <STAR GATE [Controlled Remote Viewing]>,  ᠩ 樨 ਪ᪨ 祭 [Federation of American Scientists], http:// www.fas.org/irp/program/collect/stargate.htm.




218


Doug Williams, How to Sting the Lie Detector Test (Chickasha: Sting Publications 1976).   稨   Sting Publications, P.O. Box 1832, Chickasha, OK 73023.




219


 , 14  1997 .




220


 , 11  1997 .




221


 , 13  1997 .




222


Crevier, AI: Tumultuous History, p. 133-140.




223


 祭 ⥫쭮 ଠ樨  ६ ,  ४   ४᭮  짠  [Charles Platt] <What's It Mean to Be Human, Anyway?>, 㡫  Wired Magazine  ५ 1995.




224


  <ᥤ>  㤥⮬  ३  MGonz     http://www.compapp.dcu.ie/~humphrys/eliza.html.




225


 筮 ஭ , 28  1999.




226


Michael McCormick, <Invasion of the Internet Imposters>, Internet Underground, 8  1996.     ( ࠧࠦ)  Zumabot 뫠 ᯮᮡ ணࠬ ࠧ ᫮ <>  <誠>,   -᪨ .  ⠫ 祢    ७,  ணࠬ 砫 ⮢ ⨢ ࠧ 楯⮢ ਣ⮢ .




227


. ᠩ 㡠   http://www.chessclub.com.




228


 , 25  1997.




229


J. Orwant, <For Want of a Bit the User was Lost: Cheap User Modeling>, IBM Systems Journal, 35: 3 &4, 1996.




230


Yezdi Lashkari, Max Metral and Pattie Maes <Collaborative Interface Agents> (< ᮢ⭮ 䥩>), MIT Media Laboratory, 1994 ( 㡫). 㯭  㧪   ftp://ftp.media. mit.edu/pub/agents/interface-agents/generic-agents.ps.




231


ଠ樮 ࢥ START, 뢠 <START Natural Language Question Answering System> 室   http:// www.ai.mit.edu/projects/infolab.  <᪨ ࠢ筨  1999> [᪮ : ᪨ ࠢ筨 '2000. ਭ: -, 2001.] 㯥   http://www. odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook.




232


Christine Varney, 童 ᨨ FTC, 饭  John McChesney  । national Public Radio <All Things Considered>, 10  1997.




233


 筮 ஭ , 27  1997.




234


Crevier, AI: Tumultuous History.




235


஡  ⥭ ᠬ      ⢥     ࢥ 㭨    http://hawaii.psychology.msstate.edu/invent.




236


Ray Kurzweil, <Turing's Prophecy - Machine Intelligence: the First 100 years (1940-2040)>, Keynote Address, Gartner Group Middle East Information Technology Conference, Tel Aviv, Israel, 25  1995.




237


       ᫥ ⮣ ᫮.  , ᤥ ᭮⥫  Intel म ஬ [Gordon Moore].  ᮮ⢥⢨   , ந⥫쭮 ஢  ᪮ 㤢 ਡ⥫쭮  18 楢  १ ࠧ ஢ 孮    筮-᫥⥫᪨  ⭮-᪨ ࠡ.




238


Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society (New York: Random House, 1967).




239


ண  ਪ [Evan Hendricks], ।ᥤ⥫   ਢ⭮ ; ⥫ Privacy Times.




240


John Tagliabue, <Europe Offering Free Calls, but First, a Word from:>, New York Times, 28 ᥭ 1997, p. AI.




241


Harris-Equifax, Health Information Privacy Survey, 1993.




242


-  ⮣ 㦥   ᢮   ୨, ࠧ 1785.13-1785.26.




243


 ୨   ,   祢 蠥  ࠢ  樨 . .: UD Registry v. California, 34 Cal. App. 4th 107 (1995). (ࢠ ࠢ ஢ 15  1791   ࠭ ࠦ᪨ ᢮.  ⭮,  頥 ਭ⨥ ᮬ , ࠭稢 ᢮ ᫮, நᯮ  ..- ਬ. ॢ.)




244


Section 471 U.S. Code Title 2.




245


Web-ᠩ Zero-Knowledge Systems 室  ୥   http://www.zks.net.




246


Simson Garfinkel, PGP: Pretty Good Privacy (Sebastopol: O'Relly & Associates, 1995).

(ᠭ ணࠬ PGP  ᪮ 몥  ᢥ饭 ᮢ ਢ⭮  ୥     http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Studios/1059/pgp2x-ru-Volumel.html.- ਬ. ॢ.)




247


Rothfeder, Privacy for Sale.




248


David M. Bresnahan, <Tagged Students Defy Big Brother>, World Net Daily, 23 ᥭ 1999. 㯭  ୥   http://www.worldnetdaily.com/bluesky_bresnahan/19990923_xex__tag-ged_stude.shtml.




249


Martindale, Mike, <Feds shut down identity-theft ring: network stole credit cards, driver's licenses to ring up millions>, Detroit Morning News, 26 ५ 2000. .: http://detnews.com/2000/metro/0004/26a01-44171.htm.




250


Junnarkar, Sandeep, <Intuit plugs leak Doubleclick>, CNET News.com, 2  2000. .: http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1007-200-1562341.html.




251


<DigitalConvergence Experiences Electronic Security Breach>, Digital Convergence, 15 ᥭ 2000. .: http://www.digitalcon-vergence.com/news/20000915.html.




252


Wolverton, Troy, <FBI probes extortion case at CD store>, CNET News.com, 10 ﭢ 2000. .: http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1007-200-1519088.html.




253


Borland, John, <E-commerce site breached by credit card thieves>, CNET News.com, 1  2000. .: http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1007-200-1562239.html.




254


Farmer, Melanie Austria, <39 states object to sale of Toysmart's customer list>, CNETNews.com, 21  2000. .: http://news.cnet.com/ news/0-1007-200-2307727.html.




255


஡      http://www.oip-cbc.org/investigations/reports/invrptl2.html.




256


Mariano, Gwendolyn, <FTC to recommend stronger privacy legislation to Congress>, CNET News.com, 22  2000. .: http:// news.cnet.com/news/0-1005-200-1926088.html.




257


 ⥪  C-6      http:// www.parl.gc.ca/36/2/parlbus/chambus/house/bills/government/C-6/C-6_4/ 90052bE.html.




258


Speaking Notes for John Cannis, M.P. (Scarborough Centre), Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Industry, Senate Amendments to Bill C-6, Check Against Delivery, February 14, 2000, Ottawa, Canada. .: http://www.ecom.ic.gc.ca/english/speeches/42d9.html.




259


Ibid.




260


뤥প  ਫ   C-6.  ⥪  㯥   http://www.parl.gc.ca/36/2/parlbus/chambus/ house/bills/government/C-6/C-6_4/90052bE.html.




261


 筮 ९᪨ (஭ ), 28 ५ 2000.




p1


ଠ ⨢ 樭᪮ 客, ࠧ㬥 ।  樭᪨   㯯   䨪஢ .-    ਬ砭 ॢ稪.




p2


饥  ਪ   (George Orwell - Eric Asrthur Blair) (1903-1950), ᪨ ⥫, ᥨ.

᪨ ॢ ஬ <1984> 㯥  http://lib.rus.ec/b/76207(ਬ.⠢⥫ FB2)




p3


Privacy (.)- ਢ⭮, ⭠ .




p4


Kooks (.)- 㤠, ६.




p5


 䨭 뫠 㡫   ࠪ⮢ 11 ᥭ 2001 ,  १      祫.




p6


뫠 ஫ 㯠  ஦ 짮⥫. Phishing - , ᮧ <fishing> - 론.




p7


<> - ணࠬ 樭᪮  騬, ⢫塞  ஢ ⮢  䨭ᮢ প 䥤ࠫ ⥩.




p8


.  10.




p9


Minutiae (.)- .




p10


Junk (.)- 




p11


᫥ ந ⥬ ६  砥   ࠢ १  ᪨ 묨  㪠 㯯.




p12


 ᮦ, ⠪ ⥬  ࠤ ⭮ ஡:    ਧ   ,  ⮬ ॡ 筮  ६, ⮡ <> ⥬ ᢮ .  ⠪ ⥬ ᫥ 27  ᯨᥩ ਧ  祫 9 (!) ਠ⮢ ,   ⭮⥫쭮 ⮩稢묨 뫨 ⮫쪮 3.




p13


    ஦ ᢮,  ᠬ 졠 ᬮ ॣ樮   㤥 룫拉 ࠭, ⠪       㧭 ᢮ த᫮,    娢   ᭮ ⨬ 䠪⮬.




p14


, 砥 ⥬ <ப뢠> ५䭮 ।⭮  १ ਭ.   뤠 㯠⥫,  ⠥  த,  ⨩ । த殬    .




p15


  -    ன, ன, ன  ..




p16


    11 ᥭ 2001 ,    ࠭ 砥.




p17


  ⮬ ࠢ 㦥 . ६ ஭  ॠ  稯 ਯ⮣᪨  <蠣 㪮>, ᪫騩  䠫䨪樨 ⢥.




p18


Hunt (.)- ᪠⥫, ⭨.




p19


Gopher -  ॢ襣 ⮪  ணࠬ  ࠡ  ଠ樥  ୥. ᫥ 砫 ࠭ 孮 WWW ࠪ᪨  ᯮ.




p20


 ᪠  ᪮ 몥  室 ᨩ᪨ ⥬: Yandex, Rambler, Aport,     ୥  뢠 ᫮ ᪮ 몠.




p21


⠫ DejaNews   ਮ⥭ ᪮ ⥬ Google, ⮬   娢 ७権 ( ⮬ ᫥  ᪮)  ⢨   http://groups.google.com.




p22


Skydiving (.)- ࠦ    ᢮ .




p23


   ਪ᭮ ⭮ , ਬ ⥫쭮  ᬮ 䨫쬮.  <ன>  ਭ   1980 . <  ਪ᭮ ⭮ > [Privaq Protection Act].




p24


 , ,  졥  <⮬᪨> ᯠ, ..  ணࠬ, ⮬᪨ ᮡ騬  ୥  ஭   ᫥饣 ᯮ짮  ᮢ 뫪.  ⮣   name@company.com 뢠, ਬ,   name@NOSPAMcompany.com. ᫨ ⥫ ࢥ   ,    <NOSPAM>, ணࠬ , ᪨ ப  蠡 <*@*>  騩 .




p25


 ࠢ  ᮭ쭮   ࠭ ᥣ ࠧ襭 1024  768 ᥫ ᮤন ᥣ 786432 ᥫ.




p26


᫮ - < ૠ> (.).




p27


Closed Circuit Television - ⥬ ⮣ ⥫,  易  ப⥫ ⥫     쭮 ⥬; 饯ਭ⮥ ᮪饭  ⥬ ࠭ ⥫  .




p28


筮  ⠢ <X>  ணࠬ, ࠧࠡ⠭  㭪樮஢  X-Window - ᪮ ।, ࠭  UNIX- 樮 ⥬.




p29


 ਣ   ᫮, ⠪  ᫮ webcam (web-)  wearcam (-)   砭.




p30


᫮ - <⨭ > (.).




p31


 ⢥   ⮤  ନ <᮪⭮ 뢠>.




p32


   ஫  㯭  ᯥ祭 ᭮  㫨.  ᭮騩 , 楫 ண 뫮 ᨫ ࠢ࠭⥫ ࣠    㯭.




p33


 客 .




p34


樭᪮ ଠ樮  [Medical Information Bureau, MIB]  ਣ   ᫮: MIB ⠪  ᮪饭  <Men In Black> - <  ୮>.




p35


Human T-cell Leukemia Virus -   -⮢ 祫, .




p36


᫮ - < 뭮> (.).




p37


,  ன ⢮    , 祬 ⢮ 쥢.   몠 뢠, 騥    ॥  . ⠢訩  㫠  நࠢ訬.




p38


 ⥫䮭, ᯮ㥬  ।⠢  .




p39


  <⨨> (..  ᠭ) 㣨, 뢠  ⥫䮭,  ࠧ襭 ᯮ஢.  頥  , ।⠢騥  㣨  ⥫䮭 (    ⮢), ⠪  ॡ⥫.  ⭮,  ।뢠 筮 ନ஢ ॡ⥫  ⭮ 㣨, ⮨  ६ 㣨  । த⥫쭮 㣨 (ࠧ),  ⠪ 室 祭 ࠧ襭  짮 㣮  த⥫ ⮢,  ⨣ 18 .




p40


Big Apple - ଠ쭮 ஧ -ઠ.




p41


   -ᠪᮭ᪠ ࠢ ⥬,   楤.  砥,  ᫨  室 㤥 ࠧ⥫⢠ ਭ । 襭,   ᬮ७  砥  饬  让 ⭮  㤥 襭 筮 ⠪ .




p42


20  1992  ࠫ쭠   ⥫㭨  裡 (FCC) ⠭  ॡ  ࠢ, ᯥ稢 믮   .   ⮢    ࠢ ⫨砫.




p43


State board of bar examiners. Bar examination - ਤ᪨   ࠢ  ᪮ ࠪ⨪. ।⠢ ᮡ 쬥   ⮢,   ன , ⮡  䨪  ⥩    ਭ  .




p44


 ਣ - <pay-as-you-mail>.




p45


㣮  -  ⨭⮭.




p46


ਮ⥭ ᫠㬨, ஥   ᫠ ⥫쭮 ᯮᮡ,  ,  , ᨫ쭮 㤭  ᯮ짮   諮 .




p47


⭮,    㪢 䠬 樥: Moore - .




p48


UCLA (University of California at Los Angeles)- ୨᪨ 㭨  -.




p49


 ਣ - <tort of conversion> - , ࠦ᪮ ࠢ襭;  ᢮ ⢠,  ᯮ짮 쥣- ⢠  ᮡ⢥ 楫.




p50


᪮ , 饥  ᥬ ॥-誥: 뢠 ࠭ ᬥ ᫥⢨ ࠦ   ࢭ ⥬.




p51


-,    , 뢠饬 ௮- .




p52


 ࣮; 쪠  . warez.




p53


  - Digital Millenium Copyright Act, DMCA.  ᭮  ⮣   ६ ७樨, 室襩  -   2001 ,  ⮢ 㤭 ᪮᪮  <> ਩ ஢. ᨩ᪮ ணࠬ   襭 㯮⮣   ,   ࠧࠡ⠫ ணࠬ,    ਮ⥭  ஭  (e-book - ᯥ樠 饭  ஢ ଠ ࠭ ଠ樨)  ⥫ .




p54


 㯮      ᢮⢥ ஢ .   ⮫쪮  ଠ  ᠢ襬  ,   ⪮ 易  ᠭ 㬥⮬. ᫨    ਪ९  㣮 㬥    室 㬥    ᨬ   ,  ࠧ  㤥 ⠭  ஢થ.




p55


  㯭 ⠢騪  ୥.




p56


Memorial Day - 樠 ࠡ稩 , ⬥砥         .




p57


  㯭 web-,  १ ୥ ࠧ묨 ⮢ࠬ,  ⮬ ᫥ .




p58


 뢠 , ᯮ  ஡.




p59


Fort Knox -   , 室   㪪,   த ᨢ.  1935  ⢮ 䨭ᮢ  ࣠  ࠭ ⮣ .   ६  ⠪ ࠭     ᨬ.




p60


騪-ਧࠪ (.).




p61


 ⢮ [War Department] - ।⢥ ⢠ ஭. ⢮  1789  1947 ,  뫮 ८ࠧ  樮쭮  ⢮ [National Military Establishment],   1949  -  ᮢ६ ⢮ ஭ [Department of Defense].




p62


   ஫  㯭, ॣ㫨騩 ࠧ ᯥ ⮩ ஡.




p63


ISDN, Integrated Service Digital Network - ஢   ⥣樥 .




p64


 ᮭ [Thomas Jefferson] - (1743-1826), 3- १  (1801-1809), ᭮  樨 ᨬ. ,  ⭮, ਭ ᫮  樨: < 室  ⮩ ᠬ祢 ⨭,    ᮧ ࠢ묨   ⥫ ।묨 ꥬ묨 ࠢ, ।  ࠢ  , ᢮  ६  >.




p65


᫥   諮    ﭢ 2001 .




p66


   ॢ: <>  <誠>.




p67


PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)- ணࠬ  ஢  ஢  ᮮ饭, ࠧࠡ⠭  ଠ [Phi Zimmermann].




p68


, ॢ  ᮧ  ⮣ ।: SynTactic Analysis using Reversible Transformations.




p69


室 祭 ࠧ襭 ꥪ  ᮮ⢥⢨ 楫 ᯮ짮 楫 ᡮ ।ᬮ७, ਬ,  ।  - [Simone Fischer-Hiibner]  ࠢ 㯮  ଠ樨, 襤襩 ࠪ ॠ  ஥ RSBAC. . <From a Formal Privacy Model to its Implementation> (http://www.rsbac.org/niss98.htm).




p70


஢ ॢ 樨  ᪨ , 㯭  ࢥ   ୥   http://www.un.org/russian/ documen/declarat/declhr.htm.




p71


ࣥ [Watergate] - ᪨ ᪠,    祭  㡫楢  1973-1974 .  ६ ।롮୮   饭 ᪮ ⨨  ⥫ <ࣥ> 뫨 ঠ 騪, ⠢訥 ⠭ 訢 .    筨  뫨 易  ⮬  २࠭  ன ப १-㡫 . ᮭ.




p72


, 砥 ࠢ⥫⢮  ࠧ     㤠⢥ .




p73


Freedom (.)- ᢮.




p74


⢨⥫쭮,  ࢥ  筮 ࠢ⥫ (筥,   ),    㯠  ᮤন ᮮ饭, ஥ ᫥ ਥ ⠥ ஢   ண  쥣 ࢥ஢. ன ࢥ <᭨> ஥ ஢, ⠪   㯠  ⥪  㦥   ࠢ⥫ ᮮ饭, ⠪  砥   ।⢥,   ࢮ ࢥ.  ᫥ ࢥ 砥 ᫥ ஢ 室 ᮮ饭,      ଠ  ࠢ⥫.




p75


஭ 筮 [digital cash] - ନ, ਬ塞  祭 <> ஭ .  ஭ ⥦ 宦  祪,   ⥫騪,  ஭ 筮   ࠭  ॠ쭮    .




p76


 . <cypher> -   <punk> - .




p77


   ணࠬ ᯥ祭,  ஬ - ᯮ ࠭祭 ਬ १  ,  ணࠬ,   ᯮ ᠬ    ஡஢ ਯ⮣᪨ .




p78


, ࠭騩 䨤樠쭮 , 易  祭.




p79


  ࠭ ࠢ 筮. 頥 ० ࠧ ଠ,   ,  ⠪ ࠭ ⨬ 栬 ࠢ    ᢮ ଠ樨   ४஢.




p80


Man plans and God laughs - ᫮: 祫 ,   ᬥ (.).




p81


 ஭ , <aegis> -᪨ 砥 <>, <஢⥫⢮>, <>.




p82


  楫 த , 騩   ⥫ﬨ  ..




p83


- - ஢   ⮭,  .




p84


Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) . 㯨  ᨫ  1967 . ᭮ ,  䥤ࠫ ⢠ 易 ᯥ稢 ᢮  ࠦ  ᥩ ଠ樨, ன  ᯮ.




p85


ᥢ (࠭.).




p86


Cookies (.)- ६, 뢠 web-ࢥ஬  㧥   ࠭  ஬ :  짮⥫,  ᫥ 饭, 䨪 ⥪饣 ᥠ  .




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